Speaking of the celestial sphere, its structure has mechanisms but lacks a balance beam. In the secret treasury of the palace during the late Liang Dynasty, there was one made of wood. It is round and resembles a ball, several meters in diameter. Both ends have axles, covered with the twenty-eight constellations, the three main stars, the yellow and red celestial equators, and the Milky Way, among others. Additionally, there is a horizontal circle framing it; there are also vertical pipes that represent the ground. The southern axle extends into the ground, inserted into a support on the southern side, representing the South Pole; the northern axle extends from the ground, inserted into a support on the northern side, representing the North Pole. It can rotate around the east-west direction. The stars in the sky flicker, corresponding exactly to the angles of its rotation, and the twenty-four solar terms can also be perfectly aligned, without any discrepancies. However, it is not as good as the armillary sphere, which includes a balance beam and pipes for measuring the movements and positions of the sun, moon, and stars. The Grand Historian of Wu, Chen Miao, said, "The wooden instrument made by the sages is called the celestial sphere," is this what he meant? In that case, the difference between the armillary sphere and the celestial sphere is quite pronounced. Therefore, what Zhang Heng created was likely a celestial sphere that included the sun, moon, and stars, while He Cheng Tian didn't distinguish between the armillary sphere and the celestial sphere, which is indeed an error.
Emperor Wen of the Song Dynasty ordered the Bureau of Astronomy to remake the armillary sphere in the thirteenth year of Yuanjia. Qian Lezhi, the chief astronomer, based on previous records, integrated the characteristics of the armillary sphere and armillary apparatus and cast a bronze one. It was divided into five parts, with a diameter of just over six feet eight inches and a circumference of just over eighteen feet two inches and six minutes. In this armillary sphere, the earth is positioned within the heavens and remains stationary. Circular rings of the ecliptic and the equator, the circles of the north and south poles, the twenty-eight constellations, and the Big Dipper are all set on top. The sun, moon, and five stars are all placed on the ecliptic. It has levers and axes for simulating the movement of celestial bodies. The changes in the brightness of the stars in the sky are completely consistent with it. In the late years of the Liang Dynasty, it was installed in front of the Hall of Wende. According to this design, if it is an armillary sphere, it lacks a balance and a tube inside; if it is an armillary apparatus, the earth is not on the outside. It integrates the characteristics of the two instruments and forms a whole. From its use, it is closer to an armillary apparatus, and the arrangement of the heavens and earth, both inside and out, is quite well done. During the Wu Kingdom, there was a person named Ge Heng who was very knowledgeable in astronomy and skilled in making sophisticated instruments. He remade the armillary sphere, placing the earth at the center of the heavens. It was driven by machinery to rotate, with the heavens in motion while the earth stays still, in order to observe solar shadows, as described by Qian Lezhi. In the seventeenth year of Yuanjia, he made a small armillary sphere, divided into two parts, with a diameter of two feet two inches and a circumference of six feet six inches. The twenty-eight constellations and other stars were all arranged on top, using white, blue, and yellow beads to represent the three star families. The sun, moon, and five stars were also placed on the ecliptic. It also simulates the movement of celestial bodies, with the earth inside. The armillary sphere and armillary apparatus made during the Song Yuanjia period were brought to Chang'an after the Chen Dynasty was pacified in the ninth year of Kaihuang. In the early years of the Daye period, they were moved to the Guanxiang Hall in the Eastern Capital. The attendant of the Jin Dynasty, Liu Zhiyun, said, "Zhuanxu made the armillary sphere, and the Yellow Emperor made the Gaitian instrument." However, these two instruments were made in ancient times, and the functions described in legends have since been lost and are no longer functional.
In the past, those wise emperors, during their meticulous rule of the country, created a spherical celestial globe, mapping the constellations in a circular arrangement on its surface. The North Star was positioned at the center, and it was rotated to observe celestial phenomena. The circle was divided into 365 and a quarter degrees to determine the number of days in a year. The sun moves within the celestial sphere, rotating from west to east, so its trajectory was drawn using a compass. To clearly illustrate the positions of the four seasons, spring was represented by the color blue; summer by red; autumn by white; and winter by black. The final eighteen days of each season were depicted in yellow.
The design of the celestial instrument was completed. Although one could see some things by looking up at the sky, it remained impossible to accurately determine the cycle of day and night and the passage of time, so an armillary sphere was created to simulate the movement of celestial bodies. Looking back, since the Kaihuang period, the realm was unified, and the Lingtai continued to use the iron armillary sphere from the Northern Wei to measure the waxing and waning of the seven luminaries (the sun, moon, and five planets), and arranged the positions of the constellations according to the celestial diagram, dividing the yellow and red paths, calculating the degrees of the twenty-eight mansions, but no further improvements were made to the armillary sphere.
In the fourth year of the Renshou era, Liu Zhuo from Hejian developed the "Imperial Extreme Calendar" and then presented it to the Crown Prince. When discussing regarding the armillary sphere, he said:
The stars in the sky have been pondered for measurement since ancient times, like the precise instruments such as the armillary sphere and the jade balance, valued by emperors throughout history and passed down to this day. During the Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu, he enlisted experts like Liu Xiang and Xianyu Wang to collaborate on developing the calendar, and later, Zhang Heng continued this research. Their methods were quite similar. Although Liu Xiang's specific practices have been lost to time, Zhang Heng produced tangible instruments. In the Kingdom of Wu, Lu Ji and Wang Fan also engaged in this work; Lu Ji's approach was slightly different, while Wang Fan's was similar to Zhang Heng's. In the Song Dynasty, there was Qian Lezhi, and in the Wei Dynasty, there were people like Chao Chong, who all crafted instruments from bronze and iron, varying slightly in size but sharing the same design philosophy as Wang Fan. You can see that Cai Yong's "Yueling Zhangju" and Zheng Xuan's commentary on "Kao Ling Yao" both employed Zhang Heng's methods, which are still in use today.
As for me, although my knowledge is limited, I have also studied these topics carefully and found many errors in their calculations. Even a small error can lead to significant deviations; once the celestial model is wrong, all subsequent calculations become untrustworthy. Not to mention the degrees of the equator and the ecliptic, and the moon's trajectory, which are constant and have no deviation at all. Those small differences are just a continuation of outdated methods, with no improvements whatsoever. Their errors are indeed too numerous to discuss further. The root cause is their misunderstanding of celestial principles, which leads to various conflicting interpretations.
There are several theories about the motion of celestial bodies, such as the "Xuan Ye" theory and the "Gai Tian" theory, with differing and contradictory claims. Can the laws of celestial motion really have seven interpretations? In fact, by using a water clock to observe the sun's shadow, one can deduce the laws of celestial motion; these concepts are interconnected and not different at all. The correct conclusions have long been verified, while erroneous claims have naturally been exposed. Must we wait until the sun's brilliance fades and only the faint light of fire extinguishes, when the truth is right before our eyes yet goes unseen? Isn't that tragic?
In the past, when Cai Yong was in Shuo Fang, he wrote, "With an eight-foot-tall instrument, one can measure the celestial phenomena in the universe. Such instruments existed in ancient times, but there are no corresponding written records. I have always wanted to study it closely beside the instrument, deduce the underlying principles, and then write an article." Unfortunately, Cai Yong had committed a crime at that time and was on the frontier, so his memorial was not adopted. Even if his memorial had been accepted, he probably could not have accomplished it. Cai Yong's talents were not on the same level as Zhang Heng's, who also left behind no relevant works! Thus, without related written records, people cannot grasp the mysteries these instruments reveal.
I have now established a new method, correcting the earlier armillary sphere. Using the sun's shadow at the solstices, I determined the height of the North Pole and the scale of the water clock, and I also calculated the heights of heaven and earth, as well as the laws governing stellar movement, all of which are based on evidence and specific values. I have resolved some major doubts of contemporary scholars and answered some questions of ancient scholars, as if clearing away the clouds and gaining clarity. I have compiled these findings into several volumes and will present them to you after thoroughly checking the discrepancies in the sun's shadow.
Some say that "Zhou Guan" records that on the summer solstice, the shadow measures one foot and five inches long. Ancient masters like Zhang Heng, Zheng Xuan, Wang Fan, and Lu Ji all believed that the length of this shadow could vary by one inch over a thousand miles. They explained that if the Earth is round and the sun shines directly on the South Pole, which is about fifteen thousand miles away, then the measured shadow lengths should be entirely consistent; the differences arise only because of varying heights of the heavens. However, upon careful calculation, this explanation simply doesn't hold up! The claim of a one-inch difference over a thousand miles lacks any supporting evidence and is clearly a baseless conjecture that is impossible to believe. Now, in Jiaozhou and Aizhou (present-day northern Vietnam), the sundial's gnomon casts no shadow during the summer solstice, indicating that the distance to the South Pole is significantly less than fifteen thousand miles. Therefore, the claim of a one-inch difference over a thousand miles is clearly not an actual discrepancy at all.
Mr. Zhuo's concept of the cosmos is based on the "Dao" (referring to the circumference of the celestial sphere), but the length of the "Dao" remains indeterminate, and only the measured errors can prove its accuracy. Now is a time of great prosperity, a peaceful era, making it an excellent opportunity to correct various erroneous statements. I suggest finding a hydraulic engineering expert and a mathematician skilled in calculations to measure distances of several hundred miles in the plains of Henan and Beiping (now Beijing), ensuring absolute accuracy in the north-south direction. Using a water clock for timing, measure with a rope on flat ground, precise to every minute, and measure the length of shadows on the same day. By calculating the ratio of the measured errors, the actual distance can be determined. In this way, nothing in the universe can hide its shape, and the laws of celestial phenomena will not escape calculation, revealing wisdom that surpasses that of predecessors and dispelling people's doubts. Please do not dismiss someone's statements simply because of who they are. Unfortunately, this suggestion was not adopted. It was not until the third year of the Da Ye era that the court ordered the measurement of shadow lengths in various places, by which time Mr. Zhuo had already passed away, and the issue was ultimately left unaddressed.
The "Rites of Zhou" states that a soil gnomon should be used to measure the depth of the land and observe the length of the sun's shadow to find the center of the earth. This is the foundation of the theory of the universe and the basis for developing instruments and establishing astronomical calendars. The text also mentions: "When the sun is in the south, the shadow is short and the weather is hot; when the sun is in the north, the shadow is long and the weather is cold; when the sun is in the east, the shadow is in the evening and it is windy; when the sun is in the west, the shadow is in the morning and it is cloudy. When the sun is directly overhead, the shadow is one foot and five inches long; this point is referred to as the center of the earth, the juncture of heaven and earth, where the four seasons alternate, where wind and rain converge, and where yin and yang are in balance. In this way, all things can thrive, and the nation can be stable." The "Record of Crafts" also mentions that when establishing a nation, one should choose a location near a water source and also make a wooden marker to observe the sun's shadow. Employ a compass to create diagrams, recording the shadows at sunrise and sunset. During the day, refer to the shadow at noon, and at night, refer to the position of the North Star to adjust the timing of day and night.
The method of using an earth gnomon to measure shadows is not detailed in the "Zhou Li," and ancient scholars did not explain it clearly enough. Zuceng provided a detailed explanation and added to the scripture. The method for calculating the position of the true center is as follows: first, observe the times of sunrise and sunset to determine the time unit for the clepsydra (a type of water clock) and divide the time intervals. Then, erect a vertical marker on flat ground, called the southern marker. When the sun reaches noon, place another marker at the tip of the shadow cast by the southern marker, called the central marker. In the evening, using the position of the central marker, observe the North Star and erect a third marker, called the northern marker, making sure all three markers are aligned. All three markers must be calibrated using a level. Observe these three markers; if they are in a straight line, then the location of the markers indicates the true north-south meridian. If the three markers are not aligned, it indicates that the ground is not level. Each time the central marker is observed, you can measure how far it has deviated. If the central marker is to the west, it indicates that the marker's location is west of the true center, and you need to look east for the center; if the central marker is to the east, it indicates that the marker's location is east of the true center, and you need to look west for the center. The point where the three markers form a straight line is the true center.
On the day of the spring equinox, when the sun rises from the east, erect a marker to the east of the central marker, called the eastern marker, to align the eastern marker, the sun, and the central marker in a straight line. When observing the sunset, the sun sets in the western half of the sky; erect a marker to the west of the central marker, called the western marker, so that the central marker, the western marker, and the sun are in a straight line. Observe these three markers; if they are in a straight line, then that is the position of true south and true north. If the central marker is slightly south, it indicates that the measured location is slightly south along the east-west axis; if the central marker is slightly north, it indicates that the measured location is slightly north along the east-west axis. By adjusting the north-south position, locate the point where the three markers align in the east-west direction, which is the true center, located in the true east-west direction.
In ancient times, Duke Zhou measured the sun's shadow using a soil gnomon in Yangcheng to calculate the calendar. This is recorded in "The Rites of Zhou: The Grand Minister of Works": "Using the soil gnomon method, measure the depth of the soil, correct the length of the sun's shadow, and seek the center of the earth's surface. On the winter solstice, the shadow measures one foot and five inches; this signifies the union of heaven and earth and the changing of the four seasons. Only when all things flourish and stabilize can a strong kingdom be established." Therefore, the sun is the quintessence of yang energy, a visible phenomenon of the universe's operation. The growth and decline of all things in the world depend on it, and the shifts between cold and heat also depend on it. Observing the rise and fall of yin and yang, calculating the vastness and elevation of heaven and earth, determining directions, and calculating time and leap months—there is nothing more direct than this.
The methods of ancient times were relatively simple, and their intricacies are difficult to thoroughly study. Scholars who researched astronomy had different conclusions based on their measurements. Earlier Confucian scholars believed: "At the summer solstice, if an eight-foot high pole is erected in Yangcheng, the length of its shadow matches the result obtained with the soil gnomon." However, as noted in "The Book of Documents: Examination of the Ling Star," it states: "On the summer solstice, the shadow measures one foot and five inches, and on the winter solstice, it measures one foot and three inches." "The Changes and the Verification of the Hexagrams" also states: "On the winter solstice, erect an eight-foot high pole, and observe the length of its shadow at noon to divine next year's harvest. The shadow on the summer solstice measures one foot, four inches, and eight tenths, while the shadow on the winter solstice is ten feet, three inches, and five tenths long." "The Zhoubi Suanjing" states: "In the region of Chengzhou, the shadow on the summer solstice measures one foot and six inches, while on the winter solstice, it is ten feet, three inches, and five tenths long." Liu Xiang's "Hongfan Zhuan" records: "On the summer solstice, the shadow measures one foot, five inches, and eight tenths; on the winter solstice, the shadow measures ten feet, three inches, one inch, and four tenths; during the spring and autumn equinoxes, the shadow measures seven feet, three inches, and six tenths long."
The "Sifen Calendar" of the Later Han, the "Jingchu Calendar" of the Wei Dynasty, the "Yuanjia Calendar" of the Song Dynasty, and Zu Chongzhi's calendar from the Ming Dynasty all yield the same results as "Kaoling Yao." The capitals of the Han, Wei, and Song Dynasties were different, but the results of measuring the shadow of the sun from these four calendars were consistent. However, the content recorded in those astronomical and meteorological texts is likely not a reliable basis. Liu Xiang's record of the lengths of the shadows during the spring and autumn equinoxes was directly calculated using proportions, rather than being determined based on actual observations.
You see, while the measurements of the sun's shadow are generally similar, there may still be slight differences due to unchanging regions; it is also possible for the lengths to be the same despite differences between northern and southern regions. This is likely due to the imprecision of ancient practitioners' measurements, which led to discrepancies in the results. I will now organize these complex records and include them here.
During the Tianjian period of the Liang Dynasty, Zu Cheng created a copper gnomon eight feet tall, with a gnomon (a device used to measure the sun's shadow) attached below. The gnomon had a groove at the top to hold water, ensuring it was level. It was then used to measure the variations in the length of the sun's shadow.
In the tenth year of Datong during the Northern Wei, the Grand Historian Yu Guang used a nine-foot tall gnomon to measure the sun's shadow in the Jiangdong region. He measured the length of the shadow on the summer solstice as 1.32 feet, the winter solstice as ten feet three inches and seven tenths, the beginning of summer and autumn as two feet four inches and five tenths, and the vernal and autumnal equinoxes as five feet three inches and nine tenths. During the Chen Dynasty, the measurement methods of the Liang Dynasty were still in use. The Emperor Shenzu of the Northern Qi moved the existing measuring instruments from Luoyang to Ye City, and no further measurements or verifications were conducted until Emperor Wenxuan's death.
In the seventh year of Wuping during the Northern Zhou, Gan Jingli recommended Liu Xiaosun and Zhang Mengbin to the subsequent ruler. Liu Xiaosun and Zhang Mengbin remade the gnomon to measure the sun's shadow in order to verify the accuracy of the solar terms. Unfortunately, just as they began their work, the Northern Zhou dynasty collapsed.
After the Zhou Dynasty and in the years that followed, many people began to study calendars. They also measured the shadow of the sun at the solstices to verify the accuracy of the calendar. After Emperor Gaozu of the Sui Dynasty ascended the throne, the court needed to re-establish the calendar. Zhang Zhouxuan, who was proficient in astronomical measurements, claimed that the lengthening of the sun's shadow was an auspicious sign. The emperor ordered an investigation into the matter, but no one could provide a definitive conclusion.
By the nineteenth year of the Kaihuang era, Yuan served as the Grand Astrologer and wanted to accomplish what Zhang Zhouxuan had not finished. He presented a report stating, "Since the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, the sun's shadow has gradually lengthened. The shadow at the winter solstice in the first year of Kaihuang measured twelve zhang, seven cun; afterward, it gradually shortened. By the winter solstice of the seventeenth year of Kaihuang, the shadow measured twelve zhang, six cun. In the fourth year of Kaihuang, the winter solstice shadow measured twelve zhang, eight cun in Luoyang. In the second year of Kaihuang, the shadow at the summer solstice measured one zhang, four cun, and it also gradually shortened. By the summer solstice of the sixteenth year of Kaihuang, the shadow measured one zhang, four cun. In the eighteenth year of Kaihuang at the winter solstice, measurements could not be taken due to cloudy weather. In the first, seventeenth, and eighteenth years of Kaihuang at the summer solstice, measurements could not be taken due to cloudy weather. The method of measuring the sun's shadow with a soil gnomon in the "Zhouguan" states that the shadow at the summer solstice is one zhang, five cun long. Zheng Xuan said, 'The shadow at the winter solstice is thirteen zhang long.' Now, the shadow at the summer solstice in the sixteenth year of Kaihuang is five cun shorter than before, and the shadow at the winter solstice in the seventeenth year of Kaihuang is three cun and seven tenths shorter than before. When the sun is closer to us, the shadow is shorter, and the day is longer; when the sun is farther away, the shadow is longer, and the day is shorter. Now, the sun's path is closer to us. The "Yao Classic" states, 'When the day is short and the stars are bright, it is the time of midwinter.' Based on the time the Pleiades appears at dusk, it can be inferred that during the Yao era, at midwinter, the sun was positioned ten degrees relative to the Xiangnu constellation. According to the calculations of the calendar, during the winter solstice of the Kaihuang era, the sun was positioned eleven degrees relative to the Dou constellation, which is the same as during the Yao era, indicating that the sun is relatively close to us. The "Yuan Ming Bao" states, 'The sun and moon rise on the inner path, and the celestial axis remains constant; the Heavenly Emperor reveres the spirit, and the sage kings achieve their initial accomplishments.' Jing Fang's "Bie Dui" states, 'In times of peace, the sun travels the upper path; in prosperous times, it travels the middle path; in times of dominance, it travels the lower path.'"
"Our great Sui Dynasty was founded, and heaven was moved, so the sun's shadow grew longer and the days grew longer; this is an auspicious sign rarely seen throughout history!" At that time, the deposed commoner Yong, who was just made Prince Guang of Jin, was presented with this matter by Yuan Chong, which was quite timely indeed. When the emperor held court, he said to the officials, "The lengthening of the sun's shadow is a divine blessing! Now that the crown prince has just ascended the throne, we should change the era name to reflect the meaning of the sun's shadow lengthening!" Thus, the twenty-first year of the Kaihuang era was renamed the first year of Renshou. After that, the progress of all projects picked up pace because the sun's shadow was lengthening! The crown prince led the officials to offer their congratulations in front of the palace. In fact, the length of the sun's shadow varies unpredictably, yet Yuan Chong and the others interpreted it as an auspicious sign, which drew criticism from many.
It is said that numerous ancient texts, including "Kao Ling Yao," "Zhou Bi Suan Jing," "Ling Xian," and Zheng Xuan's commentary on "Zhou Guan," all record a saying: "The shadow of the sun on the ground, a thousand miles apart, is only a difference of an inch." But is this claim accurate? In the nineteenth year of Song Yuanjia (442 AD), the court dispatched officials to Jiaozhou to measure the sun's shadow. On the day of the summer solstice, it measured three and two-tenths inches long. However, He Chengtian measured the sun's shadow in Yangcheng at one foot and five inches long on the summer solstice. The distance from Yangcheng to Jiaozhou is almost ten thousand miles, yet the sun's shadow differed by one foot, eight inches, and two-tenths, which means it differed by just one inch every six hundred miles.
For example, during the time of Liang Datong (AD 535-546), people measured the sun's shadow using an eight-foot tall gnomon, which measured about one foot, one inch, and seven tenths on the summer solstice. There is also a record in the Northern Wei's "Xindu Fang" commentary on "Zhou Bi Si Shu," noting that in the first year of Yongping (AD 68, which is also the seventh year of Liang Tianjian), the sun's shadow measured in Luoyang and the shadow observed by Gongsun Chong, who gathered officials in the Secretariat, was both one foot, five inches, and eight tenths long on the summer solstice. Jinling and Luoyang are roughly a thousand miles apart, yet the sun's shadow differed by four inches, which means the difference was one inch for every two hundred and fifty miles. You see, the discrepancies in measurement results are significant! This doesn't even account for the fact that the actual measurement routes are winding and must take into account the varying elevations of mountains and rivers, making them much longer than the straight-line distance. Therefore, the saying "an inch off in a thousand miles" is simply not reliable! So, I have recorded all these different measurement results for everyone's reference.
In ancient times, the Yellow Emperor invented the water clock to measure time during day and night. Later, the court even established official positions responsible for this matter, with the "Qie Hu Shi," as recorded in the "Zhou Li," being responsible for this. Their method of timekeeping involved dividing a day into one hundred "ke." On the winter solstice, the daytime lasted forty "ke" while the night lasted sixty "ke"; on the summer solstice, daytime was sixty "ke" and nighttime was forty "ke"; during the spring and autumn equinoxes, day and night each lasted fifty "ke." Daylight began two and a half "ke" before sunrise, and it became dark two and a half "ke" after sunset. At night, five "ke" were deducted from the night and added to the daytime, referred to as "hun dan." The markings on the water clock would be adjusted with the changing seasons. Between the winter and summer solstices, the difference in daytime and nighttime was twenty "ke," with each "ke" difference equating to one arrow. Starting from the winter solstice, this totaled forty-one arrows. Daytime was divided into five periods: morning, noon, mid-day, afternoon, and evening, while nighttime was divided into five periods: Jia, Yi, Bing, Ding, and Wu; there was also a "hun dan" period that corresponded with the changes in the stars. Each period corresponded to specific numbers used for scheduling people's work and rest.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Cang maintained the existing system, which led to numerous loopholes and oversights. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, he seriously studied and verified astronomical calendars, using a water clock to observe celestial phenomena, aiming to remedy the previous shortcomings, but he still did not fully grasp the underlying principles. Liu Xiang recorded in "Hongfan Zhuan" that the timekeeping method during Emperor Wu's reign was as follows: "Between the winter solstice and the summer solstice, there are about one hundred eighty days, with a variation of twenty ke between day and night." Generally speaking, after the winter or summer solstice, the length of day and night increases or decreases by one ke every nine days.
During the reign of Emperor Ai of Han, the method of measuring time was changed to one hundred twenty ke for day and night, but it was soon discarded. After Wang Mang usurped the throne, this method was reinstated. In the early reign of Emperor Guangwu, this method of "increasing or decreasing one ke every nine days" was also adopted and documented in the "Jia Ling," referred to as "Changfu Loupin."
It was not until the fourteenth year of Yongyuan in Emperor He's reign that Huo Rong reported: "The current official calendar stipulates that the length of day and night increases or decreases by one ke every nine days, which does not correspond with actual celestial phenomena. Sometimes the discrepancy even reaches two and a half ke, so it would be preferable to use the summer calendar water clock, adjusting the length of day and night based on the sun's movement in the north-south direction." Thus, the emperor ordered the adoption of the summer calendar water clock. This method relies on the sun's daily movement along the ecliptic; for every degree and four minutes of deviation from the celestial pole, one ke is added or subtracted. A total of forty-eight arrows were used for timekeeping, and this method remained in use until the Wei and Jin periods unchanged.
During the Song Dynasty, He Chengtian studied the patterns of the sun's movement by observing the positions of lunar eclipses and the lengths of shadows at noon. He discovered that the sun's position had deviated by six degrees compared to ancient records; on the day of the winter solstice, the length of the sun's shadow was shorter than in previous records, indicating that the time of the winter solstice had advanced by four days. The previous timekeeping tools (water clocks) had considerable inaccuracies, with daytime being longer during the spring equinox and shorter during the autumn equinox, leading to errors of more than fifteen minutes. This was all due to an inaccurate understanding of the sun's movement. Therefore, He Chengtian planned to improve the method of timekeeping. He suggested that during the spring and autumn equinoxes, the time for both daytime and nighttime should be set to fifty-five time units.
During the early Qi and Liang dynasties, this method was continued without modification. By the sixth year of the Tianjian era under Emperor Wu of Liang, he felt that dividing one hundred quarters evenly among the twelve time periods would leave a remainder. Thus, he changed the division to ninety-six quarters, so that each time period would consist of exactly eight quarters. By the tenth year of the Datong era under Liang, it was changed again to one hundred eighty quarters, based on the account in the "Book of Documents," which mentions "thirty-six lengths of day and night," multiplied by three. Specifically, during the winter solstice, daytime was forty-eight quarters and nighttime sixty quarters; during the summer solstice, daytime was seventy quarters and nighttime thirty-eight quarters; during the spring and autumn equinoxes, both daytime and nighttime were sixty quarters, with three quarters each for morning and evening. Subsequently, Emperor Wu of Liang also ordered Zu Cheng to compile the "Book of Water Clocks," which calculated the sun's daily speed based on the theory of celestial motion, referencing the sun's trajectory and distance on the ecliptic. During the Tianjia era of Emperor Wen of Chen, he also ordered the official Zhu Shi to create water clocks, following the ancient standard of one hundred quarters per day. The Zhou and Qi dynasties continued to use the water clock system established during the Wei dynasty, while the Jin, Song, and Liang dynasties during the same period all divided day and night into one hundred time units.
In the early Sui Dynasty, the "Sundial Classic" made by Yin Gongzheng and Ma Xian of the Zhou Dynasty was used. In the fourteenth year of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, Yuan Chong, the Sima of Fuzhou, presented a new timekeeping method—the sundial's shadow. This sundial uses the length of the sun's shadow to keep time, dividing the twelve time periods evenly, and to improve the accuracy of the water clock timing by observing the time and markings indicated by the sun's shadow. However, due to the uneven speed of the sun's movement, the lengths of the twelve time periods vary, and the markings for the same time period will differ slightly at different times. Yuan Chong's sundial, from the second hour to the second minute, used a special arrow carving method as follows:
Winter Solstice: The sun rises at the Chen hour and sets at the Shen hour. There are forty marks during the day and sixty marks at night. Two marks for Zi, Chou, and Hai; six marks for Yin and Xu; thirteen marks for Mao and You; fourteen marks for Chen and Shen; ten marks for Si and Wei; and eight marks for Wu. The sundial needs to be adjusted after fourteen days.
Spring and Autumn Equinox: The sun rises at the Mao hour and sets at the You hour. There are fifty marks during the day and fifty marks at night. One o'clock in the morning, seven o'clock in Chou and Hai, nine o'clock in Yin and Xu, fourteen o'clock in Mao and You, nine o'clock in Chen and Shen, seven o'clock in Si and Wei, and one o'clock in Wu. It needs to be adjusted after five days.
On the day of the Summer Solstice: The sun rises at the Yin hour (three in the morning) and sets at the Xu hour (nine in the evening). There are sixty marks during the day (twelve hours) and forty marks at night (eight hours). One thirty in the morning, ten o'clock in Chou and Hai, fourteen o'clock in Yin and Xu, thirteen o'clock in Mao and You, six o'clock in Chen and Shen, two o'clock in Si and Wei, and two o'clock in Wu. It needs to be adjusted by adding or subtracting one mark after nineteen days.
Yuan Chong had no understanding of the calculations related to the celestial sphere, ecliptic, and poles. He only relied on his own ingenuity to arbitrarily alter the previous methods, and in practice, it proved to be quite inaccurate.
In the seventeenth year of the Kaihuang era, Zhang Zhouxuan used an iron model of the armillary sphere left over from the Northern Wei period to measure and found that on the day of the spring and autumn equinox, the sun does not always rise directly in the east and set directly in the west, but is slightly to the north. This is similar to the measurement results of Mr. He Chengtian, who also measured that the sun rises at 3:55 AM and sets at 4:25 PM. Daytime lasts 50 ke and 11 minutes (approximately 10 hours), while nighttime lasts 49 ke and 40 minutes (about 9 hours and 58 minutes), with a difference of 40 ke (around 8 hours) between day and night. In the fourth year of the Renshou era, Liu Zhao submitted the "Huangji Calendar," which calculated the speed of the sun's movement and deduced the 24 solar terms, accurately determining their dates. The date of the spring and autumn equinox is a little over 88 days from the winter solstice and a little over 93 days from the summer solstice. On the day of the spring and autumn equinox, both day and night last 50 ke (about 10 hours). He also confirmed his findings using the armillary sphere and the ecliptic, verifying that on the night of the winter solstice, the nighttime lasts 59 ke and 86 minutes (about 11 hours and 58 minutes), while daytime lasts 40 ke and 14 minutes (about 8 hours); on the day of the summer solstice, daytime lasts 59 ke and 86 minutes (about 11 hours and 58 minutes), and nighttime lasts 40 ke and 14 minutes (about 8 hours). The time difference between day and night between the winter and summer solstices is 19 ke and 72 minutes (about 3 hours and 58 minutes). The times calculated by Zhang Zhouxuan and Liu Zhao were never put into practice. However, their methods and systems were recorded in the calendar books, and after being tested over time, they were very detailed and accurate.
At the beginning of the Daye era, Geng Xun crafted an ancient water clock that filled using a leaking method and presented it to Emperor Yang of Sui. The emperor was very pleased and tasked Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai with creating a water flow measuring device using the superior method employed by the Northern Wei Taoist Li Lan during his cultivation, for use during travel.
He also made a sundial that measures time based on the movement of shadows, featuring arrow-shaped gnomons and a square basin, placed in front of the Gu Lou under the Qianyang Hall in the Eastern Capital, where the timekeeping official, Si Chen, is stationed. Geng Xun also created a portable water clock that can be used while riding, making it convenient for travelers to check the time. You see, he used sundials and water clocks to measure time, both of which are essential tools for understanding the natural order of the universe.
The methods for constructing sundials and water clocks have evolved significantly from ancient to modern times, so I have listed the differences between them to supplement the previous deficiencies.
The North Star and the Hook Star are both in the Purple Micro Palace. The North Star is known as Beichen, and the central star serves as the pivot of the heavens. The sky is always turning, with the sun, moon, and stars shining in turn, but the North Star remains fixed in place. It is said, "It remains in its position, while all the other stars revolve around it." Jia Kui, Zhang Heng, Cai Yong, Wang Fan, and Lu Ji all believed that the North Star is considered the pivot of the heavens and is deemed immovable. Zu Xun observed the immovable point with an instrument and discovered that it was positioned slightly more than one degree beyond the end of the pivot star. The North Star is the seat of the Taiyi God. The first star governs the moon and represents the prince; the second star governs the sun and symbolizes the emperor; the third star governs the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth) and represents the commoner. This second star is the brightest and most radiant. The North Star and the five elements hold the highest status. If the central star is dim, it indicates that there are no concerns; if the star on the right is dim, it suggests that the prince may be in peril.
The Hook Chen Star is the rear palace, the seat of the Empress of the Supreme Emperor, and also the seat of the Supreme Emperor. The four stars to the north are called the Female Imperial Palace, symbolizing the eighty-one consorts. The star associated with the Hook Chen Star is called the Heavenly Emperor, and its deity is called the Brilliant Soul Treasure, who governs the gods and holds the chart of all deities. The four stars surrounding the North Pole hub are called the Four Assistants, which assist the North Star in issuing decrees. The nine stars above the Supreme Emperor are called the Canopy of Stars, which serves as a cover for the Supreme Emperor's seat. Additionally, there are nine stars arranged in a straight line called the Beam. The five stars below the Canopy of Stars are called the Inner Court of the Five Emperors, which is the residence of the Emperor, arranged in order. If a guest star infringes upon the seat in the Purple Micro Palace, the ministers will face consequences. The six stars beside the Canopy Beam are called the Six Jia, which can be used to distinguish between yin and yang and calculate the solar terms; hence they are beside the Emperor to issue decrees and inform people of the seasons.
The star in the extreme east is called the Historian Under the Pillar, responsible for recording wrongs. In ancient times, there were left and right historians, which symbolize them. The star north of the Historian Under the Pillar is called the Female Historian, a lower-ranking female official responsible for conveying messages. During the Han Dynasty, there were attendants of historians. The nine stars of the Guest Quarters are above the Canopy of Stars, close to the Milky Way, symbolizing the residence of guests, representing the Hu people entering the Central Plains. The guest star stays here, indicating the presence of treacherous messengers and the Hu people causing turmoil. The five stars in the southern Milky Way are called the Charioteers, who are officials of chariots, also known as the Sima or Bo Le. When this star is absent, horses become highly prized. The star Tian Yi, located south of the right star at the gate of the Purple Micro Palace, is a deity of the Heavenly Emperor, who governs war and knows the fortunes and misfortunes of people. The star Tai Yi, located very close to the south of Tian Yi, is also a deity of the Heavenly Emperor. This deity presides over sixteen deities and knows where disasters such as wind, rain, drought, flood, war, famine, and plague occur in different countries.
Purple Tenuity consists of fifteen stars, seven to the west and eight to the east, all located to the north of the Big Dipper. The brightest star in the middle is called Purple Star, the Heavenly Emperor's throne and the Emperor's residence, in charge of orders and weights and measures. The other stars are called Chang Yuan, Tian Ying, and Qi Xing, serving as guards of the Purple Star, equivalent to the Emperor's guards. If there is a rebellion in the palace, Qi Xing will stand upright, signifying that the Emperor will personally lead the troops into battle.
Below the Eastern Wall are five stars called Tian Zhu Star, in charge of the country's politics and religion, the place where laws are issued. On the first and fifteenth of every month, proclamations will be posted at Tian Zhu Star to inform the officials. According to the "Zhou Li," the laws must be displayed in January each year, which is the same as the proclamation on Tian Zhu Star. Five stars in the southeast corner inside the palace gate are called Shang Shu Star, responsible for gathering intelligence and advising the Emperor day and night, akin to a dragon, constantly advising the Emperor. Two stars to the west of Shang Shu Star are called Yin De Star and Yang De Star, dedicated to aiding disaster victims. Two stars on the inner left side of the palace gate are called Da Li Star, in charge of judging cases. Six stars outside the palace gate are called Tian Chuang Star, the Emperor's sleeping quarters, symbolizing rest and comfort. Two stars outside the southwest corner are called Nei Chu Star, overseeing the meals of the six palaces, as well as the feasting of the Empress and Crown Prince. Six stars outside the northeast corner are called Tian Chu Star, responsible for preparing sumptuous meals.
The Big Dipper has seven stars, with an auxiliary star to the north of the Purple Tenuity, the hub of the seven policies and the root of yin and yang. It traverses the sky, governing the four directions, overseeing the operation of the four seasons and the balance of the five elements. The first four stars of the Big Dipper are called Xuan Ji, and the final three stars are referred to as Yu Heng. The Big Dipper also represents the authority of commands, as well as the chariot of the Heavenly Emperor, symbolizing the concept of movement and transformation. The seven stars of the Big Dipper are named Tian Shu, Tian Xuan, Tian Ji, Tian Quan, Yu Heng, Kai Yang, and Yao Guang from left to right. The first four stars symbolize Heaven, Earth, Humanity, and Time, while Yu Heng represents sound, Kai Yang represents law, and Yao Guang represents stars.
Shi said: The first star of the Big Dipper is the True Star, representing positive virtue and symbolizing the emperor; the second star is the Fa star, representing punitive justice, the position of the empress; the third star is the Ling star, representing calamity; the fourth star is the Fa star, representing heavenly justice, punishing the unjust; the fifth star is the Sha star, representing the central authority, assisting the four directions and punishing the guilty; the sixth star is the Wei star, representing the heavenly storehouse of grains; the seventh star is the Bu star, also known as the Ying star, representing the military forces. He also said: The Big Dipper represents heaven, earth, fire, water, wood, metal, and gold; it is also said that the Big Dipper represents Qin, Chu, Liang, Wu, Zhao, Yan, and Qi.
It is said that in the sky, the leader star in the Big Dipper is the prison of the noble; this is called heavenly justice! As for the assistant star, it assists the Kaiyang star, helping the Big Dipper complete its mission. Some also say that the assistant star governs danger and righteousness, can correct improper trends, and it is not an exaggeration to say that it is a symbol of the prime minister. If the seven political stars (sun, moon, and five planets) shine brightly, the country will prosper; if they are dim, the country will suffer. The more stars near the Big Dipper, the greater the stability. If there are fewer stars in the Big Dipper, the common people will fear their leaders, and there will be a surge in disputes. If there are no stars for twenty days, it will be disastrous. If the assistant star is bright and the Big Dipper is not, it means the ministers are strong and the ruler is weak; if the assistant star is not bright and the Big Dipper is, then the ruler is strong and the ministers are weak. The three southern stars of the Dipper and the first star of the leader star, these four stars are collectively referred to as the Three Officials, responsible for promoting education, coordinating the seven political stars, harmonizing yin and yang, and overseeing the significant affairs of the realm.
The Six Stars of Wenchang are located in front of Kuixing of the Northern Dipper, representing six celestial officials in charge of planning and calculating the heavenly principles. These six stars represent: the first star represents the General, overseeing the might of the army; the second star is the Deputy General, similar to the Minister of Personnel; the third star is the Noble Minister, in charge of rites, music, and culture; the fourth star oversees rewards and promotions; the fifth star is responsible for destiny and disasters, similar to the Grand Historian, tasked with eliminating calamities; the sixth star is in charge of law enforcement, akin to the Chief Justice, assisting with legal matters. The first star is located in front of Kuixing of the Northern Dipper, close to the inner steps; if it shines brightly and uniformly, it signifies heavenly auspiciousness.
To the north of Wenchang Star are six stars called the Inner Steps, which are the palatial residence of the Heavenly Emperor. There is also a star called "Xiang" to the south of the Northern Dipper. "Xiang" is the chief overseer of all officials, responsible for education, maintaining stability in the nation, and handling various affairs; if this star shines brightly, it is a good omen. The Sun Guardian Star is located to the west of the "Xiang" star, symbolizing great generals and ministers, in charge of vigilance and defense; if this star is abnormal, it indicates that war may occur. The four stars located in the northwest are referred to as "Shi," which represent individuals subjected to corporal punishment. The Six Stars of the Celestial Prison are located below Kuixing of the Northern Dipper, representing the noble's prisons, governing faults and sins, and curbing tyrannical and immoral behavior.
Taiwei, the palace of the Heavenly Emperor, the throne of the Five Emperors, and the residence of the Twelve Dukes. The stars surrounding it represent the Nine Ministers. Some say that Taiwei resembles a scale, tasked with maintaining balance. It also serves as the heavenly court, overseeing laws and regulations, as well as rewards and punishments. The constellations receive orders from the Heavenly Emperor, the gods evaluate the solar terms, manage various affairs, and resolve numerous uncertainties. The two stars to the south are known as Duanmen. The eastern star is known as Left Law Enforcement, symbolizing the Minister of Justice (an ancient judicial body); the western star is known as Right Law Enforcement, symbolizing the Grand Inspector (an ancient supervisory body). Law enforcement refers to the act of exposing wrongdoing and malevolent individuals. To the east of Left Law Enforcement is the Left Side Gate, and to the west of Right Law Enforcement is the Right Side Gate. Among the four stars to the east, the southernmost is called Upper Minister; the one to the north and east is known as the Sun Gate; the second one is called Second Minister, the one to the north and east is called Middle Eastern Gate; the third one is called Second General, the one to the north and east is called East Taiyin Gate; the fourth one is called Upper General. These four stars are collectively referred to as the Four Ministers. The four stars to the west are the same: the southernmost is called Upper General, the one to the north and west is called West Sun Gate; the second one is called Second General, the one to the north and west is called Middle Western Gate; the third one is called Second Minister, the one to the north and west is called West Taiyin Gate; the fourth one is called Upper Minister. These are also the Four Ministers. If the stars on either side flicker or shift, it signifies that the dukes are plotting to rebel against the emperor. Should the positions of the Law Enforcement stars shift, the penalties will become more severe. If the moon and the Five Stars infringe upon the central palace of Taiwei, punishment will ensue. If the moon and the Five Stars enter Taiwei's orbit, it is considered an auspicious sign.
The three stars outside the southwest corner are called Mingtang, which is the palace where the emperor issues decrees. The three stars to the west of Mingtang are called Ling Tai, which is a platform for observing astronomical phenomena and weather, mainly used to observe clouds and celestial events, as well as to examine auspicious signs and disasters. The star to the northeast of the left enforcement star is called Ye Zhe (the Visitor), responsible for receiving guests. The three stars to the northeast of Ye Zhe are called San Gong Nei Zuo, which is the place for court meetings. The three stars to the north of San Gong are called Jiu Qing Nei Zuo, which handles various state affairs. The five stars to the west of Jiu Qing are called Nei Wu Zhu Hou, serving the emperor in the palace without returning to their own territories. If the rituals of Bi Yong (ancient schools) are perfected, then the stars of the lords in Tai Wei Palace will shine brightly.
The star in the center of Tai Wei Palace is called Huang Di Zuo, which embodies the divine power at the center. The emperor's actions must align with the will of heaven, and his pauses must align with the will of the earth, neither rushed nor slow, but perfectly timed; then the position of the five emperors in Tai Wei Palace will shine brightly, and the seat will also emit light. If Huang Di Zuo does not shine brightly, the ruler must seek out wise advisors to assist him; otherwise, he will lose power. There is also a saying that if the position of the five emperors in Tai Wei Palace is dim and dark and ominous, it foretells the emperor's impending downfall. The position of the four emperors consists of four stars, flanking Huang Di Zuo. The star to the east is the god of Cang Di Ling Wei; the star to the south is the god of Chi Di Yan Nu; the star to the west is the god of Bai Di Zhao Ju; the star to the north is the god of Hei Di Ye Guang Ji.
It is said that in the sky, the star near the North Star, known as "Tai Zi," represents the emperor's heir, the crown prince. A little further north, the star called "Cong Guan" is the attendants of the crown prince. To the northeast of the emperor, there is a star called "Xing Chen," which is the emperor's favorite minister. The four stars called "Ping" are inside the Duan Men, close to the right law enforcement; this "Ping" serves as a shield for the emperor's palace. The right law enforcement mainly supervises impeachment; when the ministers respect the emperor, this star shines brightly, radiating light.
Next are the fifteen stars of "Langwei," located in the northeast direction of the emperor, also known as "Yiwu," representing the positions of court officials. The original officials of the Zhou Dynasty, the Guanglu, Zhongsan, Jianyi, Yilang, and the Three Secretaries of the Han Dynasty, all belong to the category of lang officials. Some say this is akin to the modern-day Shangshu. Lang officials are mainly responsible for defense and protection; if this star is bright, it indicates that there are ministers who pose a threat to the emperor, and some say it could be powerful relatives plotting treason. If this star is incomplete, it signifies that someone will die soon, and favored ministers will also be killed. If a guest star appears here, it means that the ministers will rebel. Further north, there is a star called "Langjiang," responsible for inspecting the troops and overseeing military affairs. There is also a star called "Wuben," located in the western part of the Taiwei Enclosure, symbolizing the emperor's mounted guards.
The seven stars of "Changchen," arranged in a shape resembling a broom, are located to the north of the emperor and represent the imperial guard troops of the heavenly sovereign, symbolizing powerful military strength. If this star shakes, it indicates that the sovereign intends to lead troops into battle; if the star shines brightly, it signifies a strong army, while a dimming star suggests a weakening force.
There are also "Three Stages" with six stars, arranged in pairs, from Wenchang to Zhaoyao and Taiwei. Some say this is the Heavenly Pillar, the position of the Three Grand Officials. In the sky, they are called the Three Stages, overseeing the country's moral governance and decrees. The two stars near Wenchang are called the Upper Stage, responsible for fate and longevity; the two stars in the middle are called the Middle Stage, responsible for rites and ancestral worship; the two stars in the east are called the Lower Stage, overseeing wealth and military matters, aimed at promoting virtue and suppressing evil. Some also say the Three Stages are like a ladder in the sky, where the Supreme Deity walks up and down. There is another saying that compares the Three Stages to three steps: the Upper Step, with one star symbolizing the emperor and another symbolizing the empress; the Middle Step, with one star representing nobles and officials, and one representing ministers; the Lower Step, with one star representing scholars and one representing commoners. These Three Stages are used to harmonize yin and yang, governing the universe. If these stars appear abnormally, divination should be performed based on their respective domains. When the ruler and his subjects are in harmony, these stars will operate according to normal rules.
Finally, there are four stars in the south called "Neiping," responsible for law enforcement and judicial officials. North of the Middle Stage is a star called "Dazun," representing imperial relatives. South of the Lower Stage, there is a star called "Wuben," representing military guards.
In the sky, there is a star called Sheti, with six stars clustered together, just south of the Big Dipper's ladle. The Sheti star governs the changing of the seasons and also predicts good and bad fortunes. Like a shield, it protects the emperor's throne and symbolizes the nine high-ranking officials. The Sheti star is bright and vast, filling the Three Grand Officials with pride. If a guest star runs to the Sheti star, the sage will find himself subservient to others.
Looking further to the west, there are three stars called Zhou Ding, which are related to the rise and fall of dynasties. In the middle, there is the Great Horn Star, positioned between the She Ti stars. It is the throne of the Celestial King and the pillar of heaven, overseeing national affairs. To the north, there are three stars called Di Xi, overseeing the palace banquets and rituals. To the north of them are three stars called Geng He, which symbolize the spear in the heavens, also referred to as the Heavenly Edge, representing the army of the Hu forces. If the Geng He stars change, it signifies war and funerals. If this star disappears, the country faces the risk of a military coup. North of Geng He, there is a star called Zhao Yao, also known as the Spear Shield, symbolizing the Hu forces. Between the Zhao Yao star and the Big Dipper, there is a place called Tian Ku. If the starlight departs from there, it signifies prosperity for the national treasury. If the Zhao Yao star, the Great Horn Star, the Geng He star, and the Big Dipper star all shine brightly, the Hu will come to pay tribute to the Chinese Empire; but if the Zhao Yao star is bright but not in the right position, the Hu will not come to pay tribute.
North of the Zhao Yao star, there are two stars called Xuan Ge, which, similar to the Zhao Yao star, govern the Hu forces. Some say they also oversee the barbarians in the north. If a guest star runs to the Xuan Ge star, the Hu will face a significant defeat. To the east of the Big Dipper's ladle are three stars called Tian Qiang, also known as Tian Yue, which serve as weapons of heaven to repel external foes. Thus, they are positioned on the left side of the Zi Wei Palace for defensive purposes. To the north of the Tian Qiang stars are three stars called Nu Chuang, symbolizing the imperial harem and governing its matters. To the north of the Nu Chuang star are five stars called Tian Pao, the vanguard for the emperor's campaigns, overseeing battles, punishments, and military mobilization, also employed for defense. Tian Qiang and Tian Pao are both for dealing with emergencies. If any of the stars of Tian Qiang or Tian Pao are missing, the nation will face turmoil.
It is said that in the sky, there are the Eastern Seven Stars, known as Fu Kuang, resembling a basket filled with mulberry leaves, responsible for advising on silkworm rearing. There are also the Seven Lords Stars, located to the east of the Boasting Star, symbolizing the heavens, akin to the ancient Three Officials, responsible for the Seven Governance Matters (referring to the sun, moon, and five planets). In front of it are the Nine Stars of Guan Suo, also known as the "Prisoner's Jail," overseeing legal matters and suppressing violence. One of these stars acts as the prison gate, and if it opens, it would be disastrous. If these nine stars shine brightly, lawsuits will be rampant. When the Seven Stars shine, minor pardons are granted; when the Five Stars shine, there will be major pardons. If the Seven Stars begin to move, they must be severed with an axe, and if there is a gap in the middle, there will be a change of dynasty. The "Book of Han" mentions a total of fifteen stars here.
Moving further east, there are the Nine Stars of Tian Ji, situated to the east of Guan Suo, representing the nine ministers. The Nine River Star is tasked with resolving grievances. When it shines, there will be many lawsuits in the world; when it is dim, political affairs will deteriorate, national discipline will be chaotic, and if it disperses, earthquakes and landslides will follow. To the east of Tian Ji are the Weaver Maid Three Stars, celestial maidens overseeing fruits, vegetables, silk, and treasures. If the emperor is filial and the gods are pleased, the Weaver Maid Star will shine, ushering in peace across the land. When the Great Star of Anger shines, fabrics and silks will rise in price. To the east, there are four stars called Jian Tai, resembling a platform by the water, responsible for sundials, water clocks, and musical scales. To the west are the Five Stars of the Imperial Road, the path of the emperor's recreational pursuits, linking the Southern and Northern Palaces of the Han Dynasty.
The two stars in the center of the left and right corners are known as the Officials of Pingdao. The star to the west of Pingdao is called Jinxian, responsible for recommending talented individuals for high-ranking officials. The two stars north of the Jiao star are referred to as Tiantian. The six stars north of the Kang star are known as Kangchi, where Kang represents a boat and Chi represents water, overseeing the processes of sending and receiving. The star at the center of the Fang star is named Sui, which safeguards it and maintains the balance of yin and yang. To the west of the Fang star, there are two stars arranged north and south, known as Tianfu, responsible for the officials' chariots, akin to the carriages described in the "Book of Rites." They also oversee sacrificial rites. There are four stars each in Dongxian and Xixian, north of Fang and Xin, the trajectory of the five stars associated with the sun and moon. The gate of the Fang star serves to prevent immorality. Bright stars signify good fortune, while dark stars indicate misfortune. If the sun, moon, and five stars transgress it, conspiracies will arise. Each of Dongxian and Xixian contains three stars arranged north and south, known as penalty stars, responsible for accepting gold as atonement for sins. Additionally, there is a star named Jianbi located northeast of the Fang star, near the hook, overseeing the passageway.
The Tian Shi Yuan star cluster consists of twenty-two stars, located in the northeast of Fang Su and Xin Su. It governs the affairs of balance and gathering crowds, also known as the Heavenly Flag Courtyard, mainly responsible for matters of execution. If the stars of Tian Shi Yuan shine brightly and radiantly, that year will see a bountiful harvest; if the stars are sparse and dim, it will be a year of meager harvest. If Mars stays in Tian Shi Yuan, disloyal subjects face execution. Another saying is that if Mars and Antares stay together in Tian Shi Yuan, subjects will rise against their ruler. If a comet passes through Tian Shi Yuan, it indicates that the market will relocate or the capital will shift. If a wandering star enters Tian Shi Yuan, there will be a large-scale war; if the wandering star leaves Tian Shi Yuan, a noble person will pass away. The six stars at the center of Tian Shi Yuan, close to the Dipper, are called the Market Tower and Market Government, responsible for regulating market prices and practices. Among these six stars, the positive stars symbolize wealth, while the negative stars symbolize precious gems. If these stars show abnormal changes, divination will be performed according to their respective domains. The four stars located to the north of Tian Shi Yuan are called Tian Hu, responsible for weights and measures; the two stars to the northwest are called Lie Si, responsible for precious goods and jade artifacts; the two stars flanking the market gate are called Che Si, responsible for the merchant's district.
In the Celestial Market, there is a star called the Emperor's Throne, located in the center of the Celestial Market, to the west of the Waiting Star, symbolizing the heavenly court. If the Emperor's Throne star shines brightly and radiantly, then the emperor will be auspicious, and his orders will be smoothly executed; if the Emperor's Throne star is dim and faint, it foretells misfortune, often affecting high-ranking officials. There is also a star called the Waiting Star, located northeast of the Emperor's Throne, responsible for observing yin and yang. If the Waiting Star is bright and large, it signifies powerful ministers and the submission of foreign nations; if the Waiting Star is small and weak, the country will be stable; if the Waiting Star disappears, the monarch will lose his position; if the Waiting Star moves, the monarch will be restless. In the southwest of the Emperor's Throne, there are four stars called the Eunuchs, symbolizing those who serve the monarch but are out of favor. If the Eunuchs star is dim, it is auspicious; if the Eunuchs star is bright, it is dangerous, which is unusual, indicating that the eunuchs will have troubles. In the south of the Eunuchs star, there are five stars called the Dipper, responsible for measurements. If the Dipper star is rising, the world's weights and measures will be inconsistent; if the Dipper star is falling, there will be a good harvest. In the southeast of the Emperor's Throne, there are two stars called the Genealogy Chief, symbolizing the noble family officials. If a comet stays near the Genealogy Chief star, or if the Genealogy Chief star loses its color, there will be events concerning the Genealogy Chief. If a wandering star stays near the Genealogy Chief star and moves, there will be changes in the emperor's relatives; if a wandering star stays near the Genealogy Chief star for a long time, a noble person will die. There are also two stars called the Ancestral Star, located east of the Waiting Star, symbolizing the royal family and loyal officials assisting the emperor. If a wandering star stays near the Ancestral Star, there will be discord within the royal family. In the northeast, there are two stars called the Silk Measure and the Butcher's Stall, each responsible for their own affairs.
The Four Stars of the Heavenly River are located north of the Tail Mansion, responsible for lunar affairs. If the Heavenly River star is incomplete, the rivers, passes, and roads in the world will be blocked; if the Heavenly River star is bright and shaking, there will be floods and wars; if the Heavenly River star is irregular, horse prices will increase. If Mars stays near the Heavenly River star, a new king will be established; if a wandering star enters the Heavenly River star, the river will be blocked.
In the heavens, there are eight stars called Tianlao, located to the west of the Southern Dipper's ladle; it governs closures, much like a door lock. There are also six stars called Jianxing, to the north of the Southern Dipper, also known as Tianqi, which is the capital's checkpoint in the heavens. Jianxing is associated with planning, the war drums, and the war horses of the heavens. The two stars in the south represent the warehouses of the heavens; the two stars in the middle represent the marketplace and the armory; the two stars above are flagpoles. Between the Dipper and Jianxing is the Three Light Avenue. If these stars are unsettled, people on earth will suffer. If the moon's halo surrounds them, dragons will emerge, and cattle and horses will fall ill. If the moon and the five planets invade them, ministers will scheme against each other, and subordinates will plot treachery; it will also lead to blocked passes and great floods. The four stars in the southeast are called Dog Kingdom, representing the Xianbei, Wuwan, and Wozhu ethnic minorities. If Mars stays there, foreign tribes will cause unrest; if Venus retrogrades and stays there, Dog Kingdom will have internal strife; if a guest star intrudes and lingers here, great thieves will emerge, and even the king may be killed. The two stars north of Dog Kingdom, known as Tianji, govern the passage of time. The nine stars forming Tianbian, located to the north of Jianxing, are the officials responsible for the market, overseeing various transactions, similar to current market registration, providing insight into rare items available in the market. If these stars are bright, it is a good omen; if a comet invades and stays here, grain prices will rise, and prisoners will rebel.
The River Drum consists of the Three Stars and the Nine Stars of the Flag, located north of the Cowherd star. They are the celestial battle drums that govern the military and the arsenal. It is also said that these three stars represent the emperor's three generals: the largest star in the middle is the Grand General, the star on the left is the Left General, while the star on the right is the Right General. The star on the left, also the southernmost star, is tasked with guarding the passes, defending against external enemies, and predicting the enemy's plans and expeditions. The flag serves as the banner of the celestial drum, symbolizing its significance. The Nine Stars of the Left Flag are positioned to the left of the River Drum. If the River Drum stands upright and shines brightly, yellow and glossy, it will be a good omen; if it is crooked, there will be military disasters. If the stars shine brightly, horses will be valued highly; any disturbance will lead to war. If the flag star appears unusually ominous, it will herald internal chaos. At the ends of the flag, there are two stars to the north and two to the south, referred to as Tian Fu, with 'Fu' meaning drumstick. If these stars do not shine brightly, it may result in timing errors. Near the River Drum, if the drumsticks and drums are arranged neatly, they are all used to coordinate with the battle drum.
The Li Zhu Five Stars, located north of the Weaving Maiden, represent the inner residence of the Weaving Maiden, also representing women's stars.
If the stars remain undisturbed, the harem will enjoy peace; if a guest star intrudes, the harem will face peril.
The two stars in the northern sky are known as Si Ming, the two stars further north are known as Si Lu, the two stars even further north are known as Si Wei, and the two stars at the very north are known as Si Fei. Si Ming governs rewards and punishments, able to eliminate misfortune. Si Lu increases lifespan and virtue, hence its position to the north of the Six Ancestors. Offending Si Wei results in arrogance and indulgence, ultimately leading to downfall. Si Fei tends to favor private interests over the law.
To the north of Li Zhu, there are five stars called Hu Gua, which govern schemes, the inner court, and agricultural harvests. When they shine brightly, it foretells a good harvest; when they dim, it signals a poor harvest, and the inner court will lose power. If these stars show no abnormalities yet landslides and floods occur, that too is unusual. Adjacent to them are five stars known as Bai Gua, which oversee agriculture and cultivation.
The Nine Stars of Tianjin serve as a bridge, connecting all directions. If one star is missing, transportation routes become obstructed. When the stars are bright and active, it foreshadows war erupting like quicksand, resulting in countless casualties; if the stars are dim and uneven, horses will die in large numbers. Should the Tianjin star vanish, water disasters will ensue, and water bandits may rise to power.
East near the river, there are seven stars called the Chefu Star, which governs the officials in charge of vehicles. Southeast of the Chefu Star, there are five stars called the Ren Star, which brings stability to the populace, comforts those far away, and unites those nearby. One of these is known as the Resting Star, which is in charge of preventing promiscuity. To the south of the Ren Star, there are three stars called the Neixi, and to the southeast, there are four stars called the Chujiu, which oversee the supply of military provisions. If a guest star intrudes upon these constellations, wars will erupt, and the nation's food supplies will be requisitioned.
In the north of Tianjin, there are four stars arranged like a balance, called the Xizhong Star, named after an ancient official responsible for vehicles.
It is said that there is a Tengshe Star in the sky, consisting of twenty-two stars connected together, located north of the Ying Shi Star. This Tengshe Star governs the creatures in the water. If the starlight shines particularly bright, it is a bad omen, as it may lead to disasters; if a guest star approaches it, there will be floods and poor harvests.
Let's talk about the Wangliang Star, consisting of five stars, located north of the Kui Constellation, right in the Yellow River. This constellation represents the officials tasked with overseeing the emperor's carriages and horses! Four of the stars are called Tianju, and the other one is called Wangliang, also known as Tianma. If the Wangliang Star shifts, it signifies the galloping of horses and the proliferation of carriages. Some say that the Wangliang Star is the bridge in the sky, governing the wind, rain, and waterways, and is occasionally used for divination regarding the fortunes of bridges. If the Wangliang Star moves, there will be wars and sick horses. If a guest star approaches it, the bridge will become impassable.
In front of Wang Liangxing, there is another star called "Cè," which is the whip used by Wang Liang to guide the horses, representing the emperor's charioteer, right next to Wang Liangxing. If this "Cè" star moves to the back of the horse, it signifies that horses and carriages are abundant. There is also the Ge Dao constellation, consisting of six stars, in front of Wang Liangxing, like a flying road, extending from the Purple Palace all the way to the Yellow River, the path traveled by immortals. Some say that the Ge Dao star is in charge of the road, the route the emperor takes when visiting other palaces; some say that the Ge Dao star is used to ward off disasters and atone for sins; some say it is Wang Liang's flag, or the Purple Palace's flag, used as a symbol, which must remain steadfast, because the flag star is used by the army.
The Fu Lu star is a single star, south of the Ge Dao star, like a side path that can serve as an alternative route when the Ge Dao star is damaged. Some say it is the Grand Steward, who oversees the winds and rains, also representing the meaning of following. North of the Dong Bi star are ten stars called Tianjiu, the official office responsible for managing horses, similar to modern-day post stations, tasked with delivering orders, setting up post stations, and running day and night without stopping, illustrating its rapid movement, like the water in a leaking pot, racing against time.
The twelve constellations in the sky are known as the Heavenly Generals, north of the Lou constellation, in charge of the army. The largest star at the center is the Great General of the heavens; the smaller stars surrounding it represent his soldiers. When the Great General star shows signs of unrest, war is imminent, and the Great General is about to go to war; if the smaller stars are not in order, war is about to erupt. To the south lies a star known as the Southern Gate of the Army, in charge of the entry and exit of the army.
The Tai Ling Star has eight stars, located north of the Wei constellation. "Ling" means tomb. The part of the Tai Ling Star that curves like a rolled tongue is called Ji Jing, which oversees significant funerals. If the star in the middle of Ji Jing disappears, then there will be funerals in the feudal states, the common people will suffer from illness, wars will break out, and grain will be hoarded; if the Ji Jing star shrinks, grain will be lost. If this star is in its normal state, civil engineering projects will be constructed. The star in the middle of Tai Ling is called Ji Shi, and if it shines brightly, it indicates that the dead will be as numerous as the mountains.
The Tian Chuan Star has nine stars, located to the north of the Tai Ling Star, situated in the Milky Way. It is also called the Boat Star, governing ferry crossings and used to traverse impassable rivers, as well as managing water and drought disasters. If the Tian Chuan Star is not in the Han River area, then ferry crossings and rivers will be impassable. If the four stars in the middle of Tian Chuan shine evenly and brightly, the world will be at peace; if uneven, wars or funerals will occur. If comets enter and exit the Tian Chuan Star, major floods and wars will occur. The star in the middle of Tian Chuan is called Ji Shui, used to predict floods.
The two stars to the west of the Mao constellation are called Tian Jie, which is the path for the sun, moon, and stars, governing the conditions of passes and bridges both inside and out. One star to the west of Tian Jie is called the Moon. The Juan She Star has six stars located to the north, governing people's speech and helping to discern treachery and slander. If the Juan She Star is curved, it is a good omen; if it is straight and moves quickly, there will be calamities arising from speech. The star in the middle of Juan She is called Tian Chan, overseeing both sorcerers and physicians.
The Five Chariots Star (Wu Che Xing) consists of five stars, and the Three Pillars Star (San Zhu Xing) consists of nine stars, all located north of the Bi Xiu constellation. Wu Che Xing is the parking place of the Five Emperors' chariots, where the Five Emperors ride their chariots, overseeing the five armies under the emperor's command, as well as governing the abundance and scarcity of the five grains. The largest star in the northwest region is called Tian Ku, governing Venus and the state of Qin. The star in the northeast is called Yu, governing the Morning Star and the states of Yan and Zhao. The star in the east is called Tian Cang, governing the Year Star and the states of Lu and Wei. The star in the southeast is called Si Kong, governing the Filling Star and the state of Chu. The star in the southwest is called Qing Xing, governing Mars and the state of Wei. If these five stars change, one can divine fortunes and misfortunes based on the states they govern. The Three Pillars Star consists of three stars: San Quan, Xiu, and Qi. If the light of Wu Che Xing is evenly bright and constant in size, when the emperor conducts a grand sacrificial ceremony, both the Five Chariots Star and the Three Pillars Star will shine brightly. In the middle of Wu Che Xing, there are five stars known as Tian Huang. To the south of Tian Huang, there are three stars called Xian Chi, which means "Fish Pond." When the moon and the five stars enter Tian Huang, wars will erupt, roads will be obstructed, chaos will ensue, and political power will shift. If Xian Chi shines brightly, dragons will fall and perish, fierce beasts and wolves will harm people, similar to the outbreak of war. Well, this discusses ancient astronomical phenomena! Let's examine it sentence by sentence. First of all, it says "Wu Che Nan Liu Xing Yue Zhu Wang, Cha Zhu Hou Cun Wang," meaning that there is a constellation in the sky called "Wu Che," with six stars to the south called "Zhu Wang." Observing these stars can reveal the rise and fall of the feudal states.
Then, "the five stars in the west are referred to as 'Li Shi'; if Venus or other guest stars approach it, war will ensue." This means that the five stars in the west are named "Li Shi," and if Venus or any other guest star comes close, it indicates that a battle will occur. Next, "the eight stars in the north are called 'Ba Gu,' which preside over the seasons. If one star of Ba Gu disappears, one valley will fail to yield." This refers to the eight stars in the north known as "Ba Gu," representing harvests; if one of these stars vanishes, it signifies a poor harvest for that year. Furthermore, "the Tian Guan star is located south of the Five Chariots, also called Tian Men, through which the sun and moon travel; it governs border affairs and controls openings and closings. If the Mang Jiao star appears in proximity to the five stars, significant events will unfold, and many nobles will die." The "Tian Guan star" is situated south of the "Five Chariots" and is also known as "Tian Men," through which the sun and moon pass. It oversees border matters and regulates openings and closings. If the "Mang Jiao" star appears in proximity to the five stars, significant troubles will arise, leading to the deaths of many high-ranking officials. Next, "the four stars preceding the Dong Jing constellation are known as 'Si Guai,' which monitor the changes of heaven, earth, sun, moon, stars, and the anomalies of birds, beasts, and plants. A wise ruler, upon hearing of disasters, will cultivate virtue and safeguard blessings." The four stars preceding the "Dong Jing" constellation are known as "Si Guai," responsible for observing changes in heaven, earth, sun, moon, and stars, as well as abnormalities among birds, beasts, and plants. A wise ruler, aware of these ominous signs, will cultivate virtue and accumulate blessings to avert disasters. "The nine stars northwest of Si Guai are called 'Zuo Qi,' representing the ranks of rulers and subjects. The four stars west of Zuo Qi are called 'Tian Gao,' symbolizing elevated platforms for distant observation. The star west of Tian Gao is called 'Tian He,' which is tasked with observing the anomalies in mountains and forests." Following this, the nine stars northwest of "Si Guai" are called "Zuo Qi," indicating the ranks of rulers and subjects; the four stars west of "Zuo Qi" are called "Tian Gao," symbolizing elevated platforms used for distant observation; the star west of "Tian Gao" is called "Tian He," tasked with observing the anomalies in mountains and forests.
"South River and North River each contain three stars, flanking the 'Eastern Well Star.' The South River is also known as 'Southern Guard,' 'Southern Palace,' 'Yang Gate,' 'Yue Gate,' and 'Authority Star,' governing fire, the North River is also known as 'Northern Guard,' 'Northern Palace,' 'Yin Gate,' 'Hu Gate,' and 'Balance Star,' governing water. The regular paths of the sun, moon, and five major stars traverse the space between these two rivers. If these two 'rivers' are in turmoil, war will break out in China. The three stars of the South River are referred to as 'Gate Hill,' representing the scenes outside the gates of the palace. The five stars known as the 'Five Dukes' are situated north of the 'Eastern Well Star,' tasked with oversight, warning the ruler to remain vigilant, and regulating yin and yang, monitoring gains and losses, and even influencing the emperor's thoughts. These five stars represent the Imperial Teacher, the Imperial Friend, the Three Officials, the Doctor, and the Grand Historian, who frequently assist the emperor with complex matters. If these stars shine brightly, the realm will enjoy peace; if they are dim and lackluster, disaster will befall."
Finally, among the "Five Princes of the South," the three stars known as "Tianzun" are responsible for the supply of food and wine; the star "Jixun Star" lies to the east of the star "Jishui," overseeing the supply of the kitchen; the four stars known as "Shuiwei" lie to the east of "Dongjing," managing water resources. If a guest star infringes upon the water or fire stars, a flood will occur.
In conclusion, ancient people predicted national events and natural disasters by observing these celestial phenomena, which is truly remarkable!
Speaking of the seventeen stars of Xuanyuan, it is located to the north of the seven stars of the Big Dipper. Xuanyuan is the deity associated with the Yellow Emperor and the embodiment of the Yellow Dragon. It represents the head of the harem and also signifies the positions of officials. One of the stars is called Dongling, also known as the power star, which is in charge of thunderstorms. The southernmost star represents the empress. The first star to the north represents the concubine. The next star represents the general. The remaining stars are all concubines. The smaller southern star that represents the empress symbolizes the female officials. The small star to the left symbolizes the minor empress's family. The large star to the right symbolizes the empress dowager's family. These stars are ideally yellowish, small, and bright.
In the upper right corner of the Xuanyuan star, there are three stars to the south known as "Jiuqi," which serves as the flag for the wine official, overseeing banquets and feasts. If the five stars are near the Jiuqi at the same time, a grand banquet will be held throughout the realm, with wine, meat, and treasures bestowed upon the princes and the royal family. South of Jiuqi, there are two stars called Tianxiang, which symbolize the position of the prime minister. To the west of the Xuanyuan star, there are four stars called Luan, which represent the beacon fires of a watchtower, signaling border alarms.
To the north of the star Zhuo, there are four stars called Neiping. The four stars in Shaowei, located to the west of Taiwei, represent the positions of the scholar-official class. This constellation is also known as Chushi, the deputy of the emperor, or the Doctorate official; others say it oversees the palace gates. Specifically, the southernmost star is Chushi, the second is Yishi, the third is Boshi, and the fourth is Dafu. If these four stars look large and yellow, it indicates that the wise officials have been promoted and valued. If the moon and the five stars come close to Shaowei at the same time, then the queen and the Chushi will face misfortune, and the prime minister may also be replaced. To the south, there are four stars called Changyuan, which oversee the borders and the northern ethnic groups. If Mars moves into Changyuan, the northern ethnic groups may invade the Central Plains. If Venus moves into Changyuan, the nine ministers might plot conspiracies.
