In July of the third year of Yongding, the emperor passed away. The newly appointed Left Chancellor of the Ministry of Rites, Yu Chi, stood up and said, "Since the Jin and Song dynasties, the ritual process following the emperor's death has never involved assigning him a posthumous title on the same day. It is always first to perform rituals at the southern outskirts and the ancestral temple, and only then report the posthumous title. The emperor's body is about to be placed in the coffin and carried away. The attendants have already reported that he is to be referred to by a certain posthumous title. The mourning tablet is read only when the funeral procession reaches the palace steps. However, the mourning tablets for previous emperors still referred to them as 'the late emperor.' I believe we should amend this for greater accuracy."
Scholar Guozi, the Infantry Commander, along with others skilled in ritual, such as Shen Wen'a, also remarked, "According to Ying Shao's 'Customs and Practices,' before the emperor's posthumous title is established, ministers refer to him as 'the late' to distinguish him from the new emperor. We have consulted the ritual system of the Liang dynasty, and from the time the coffin is placed in the casket, the reports always refer to him as 'the emperor with a certain posthumous title.' Now that the rituals have been conducted, the posthumous title has been established, and the mourning tablet has been inscribed, he should no longer be referred to as 'the late' during the funeral. Moreover, the mourning tablet is carved on a jade tablet and is to be placed in the imperial tomb." They suggested, "Following the Liang dynasty's system, we should use the posthumous title so that it can be passed down through the ages." The emperor approved their proposal.
On the gui-hai day in the eighth month of the first year of the Tianjia era, the Ministry of Rites requested to establish mourning rituals for the Empress Dowager's father, Lord Anji. Shen Zhu expressed his opinion: "According to regulations, after the mourning period for close relatives ends, it should be further shortened. If the mourning period exceeds two years, it can be limited to twenty-five months. However, important mourning garments should not be removed all at once, so one should change to plain clothing. Major grief cannot be healed immediately; hence, it is referred to as 'xiangfu.' The term 'fu' means 'light' or 'gentle,' used to gradually soothe sorrow. For example, if a father is alive and the mother remarries and has another child, the mourning period may be shortened. Once the period is over, the mourning garments should be removed, and one should stop wearing hemp clothing. All these decisions depend on specific circumstances and should be based on inner feelings. If one feels sorrowful internally, one cannot simply remove mourning garments, nor can one switch to dark clothing. Since there is still sadness in the heart, there is no need to further lessen the mourning. Moreover, the mourning period is typically fifteen months; however, to express longing for Lord Anji, it is extended to two years, or twenty-five months. During the Yuanjia period of the Song Dynasty, it was stipulated that internal grief should be limited to twenty-five months. In the Ming Dynasty, this regulation was also observed when Empress Wang's father passed away. During the Jianyuan period of the Qi Dynasty, when Crown Prince Mu's consort died, the same approach was taken. Only Wang Jian's "Collection of Ancient and Modern Records" states that internal grief requires a mourning period of twenty-seven months, but this was refuted by Wang Qun. He Tong's ceremonial notes also used twenty-five months. Considering both ancient and modern practices, the mourning limit should be set at two years, or twenty-five months. Now that the Empress Dowager is in mourning for Lord Anji, the mourning should conclude after two years, and there is no need to conduct the 'fu' ceremony." The emperor also approved this opinion.
During the Sui Dynasty, the regulation stated that if a mountain collapsed or a river dried up, the emperor should wear plain clothing, avoid the royal bedchamber, and refrain from eating for three days, sending envoys to offer sacrifices to the collapsed mountains and rivers, using the finest livestock for the sacrificial offerings.
The emperor himself must wear mourning clothes for the funeral of his parents, grandparents, the parents of the empress, as well as all officials of the first rank, and court sessions must be suspended for three days. If a close relative of the emperor within the five mourning periods, a concubine, or an official of the second rank or higher dies, the emperor must hold a mourning ceremony. In the event of a solar eclipse or a national mourning day, if a close relative of the emperor himself or of officials of the third rank or higher dies, the emperor must also suspend court for one day.
The empress dowager and empress must hold a mourning ceremony for close relatives and concubines within the five mourning periods; the crown prince must hold a mourning ceremony for close relatives within the five mourning periods, as well as the three masters, three tutors, and officials of third rank or higher in the Eastern Palace.
In the first year of the Tianjian reign of the Liang Dynasty, a concubine of the King of Xian of Qi, Xie Shi, died. At her burial, her hair was disheveled, and the coffin was not brought into the tomb. Xiao Zijin found this matter difficult to handle, so he consulted the ritual official He Tongzhi. He Tongzhi believed, "If the burial is to be changed, rough mourning garments should be worn, as mourning garments must be worn when seeing the coffin. But this time, only the earth of the tomb was disturbed, and the coffin was not moved, so it can be handled according to the mourning rituals of weeping for three days after the new palace fire." The emperor felt that his opinion was in accordance with the ritual.
Two years later, He Tongzhi proposed again, "Mourning for three years, without the need to hold a memorial ceremony." After discussion in the Ministry of Rites, it was considered that He Tongzhi's opinion was correct.
Another two years passed, and the son of the King of Shixing died. The scholar Guan Xuan suggested that the national leader wear rough mourning garments.
In the fourth year of Tianjian, Yan Zhi, who was in charge of funeral rituals, formulated the "Rituals." Because the month of the deceased happened to be a leap month, and the end of mourning (Zhongxiang) was after the leap month, there was a question about which month the Zhongxiang ceremony should be held. The emperor said, "The leap month is a supplementary month, and each month has its own solar terms. If the solar term belongs to the previous month, the mourning day should be in the previous month; if the solar term belongs to the following month, the mourning day should be in the following month. If Zhongxiang falls on a leap month, a later date should be selected."
Four years later, the ruler of Ancheng reported: "The temple has just been completed, and I want to move my birth mother Wu Consort's spirit tablet in today. However, the king is currently mourning the queen and wishes for his subjects to perform the ritual on his behalf." Ming Shanbin argued: "No, we should wait until the mourning period for the queen is over, and then personally conduct a grand sacrificial ceremony."
In the fifth year of Tianjian, the mother of a noble lady passed away, and there were questions about the funeral ceremony. Ming Shanbin suggested: "The noble lady is currently mourning for her mother, and the Crown Prince should go to her residence to conduct a mourning ceremony to express the Emperor's grief, as this is in accordance with the rites." The Emperor accepted his suggestion.
After five years, the Minister of Ancestral Temples, Sima Jiong, submitted a report: "The noble lady's mother has passed away, and the funeral should be conducted according to the rites." He proposed: "The sons should be allowed to wear mourning clothes upon their mother's death, and then remove the mourning clothes after the burial." The Emperor agreed.
In the sixth year, the Emperor established a clear set of funeral regulations, stipulating that all tombs should no longer be decorated with stone figures, stone animals, and stone tablets, but only stone pillars with the name and identity of the deceased engraved on them.
In the seventh year, the Empress Dowager of Ancheng, Wang Ci, passed away, and Zhou She reported: "Ancheng Wang and Shixing Wang should visit the spirit tablet every day during the mourning period to receive condolences." The Emperor said: "There cannot be two authorities in funeral matters. Both princes are out of town, so their sons should perform the sacrifices and handle the funeral affairs on their behalf." Zhou She further reported: "The heir should wear coarse linen garments with a silk collar. The single garment should be made of fifteen liters of hemp cloth. For any matters, including lunar calendar events and monthly observances, they must weep in front of the spirit tablet morning and night. Music shall not be played for three years."
In the fourteenth year, Zhu Yi, a scholar, expressed his opinion: "According to the 'Book of Rites', even if one has not reached adulthood, if they have already been enfeoffed, they should not be regarded as having died young. Although the Marquis of Fengyang passed away at a young age, he has already received enfeoffment, so he should not follow adult mourning customs." The Emperor agreed with him. Therefore, when the princes mourned for the Marquis of Fengyang, they followed the mourning customs of adults.
In the sixth year of Dadi, the Crown Prince asked a question: According to the regulations, when a father passes away and the family observes a short mourning period, they cannot hold wedding ceremonies or similar rituals. So, if the father passes away and the family observes a long mourning period, should these ceremonies also be omitted? I have some questions about this.
The Emperor said: The 'Book of Rites' says: "During the later stages of mourning for a long period, one can hold the coming-of-age ceremony. When observing a short mourning period after the father's death, one can hold the coming-of-age ceremony, marriage ceremonies, and weddings. If one is mourning for themselves, after the mourning period, they can also hold the coming-of-age ceremony and get married. However, when the father passes away and the family observes a short mourning period, this is not permitted." Scholars from the Jin Dynasty, such as Cai Mo, Xie Shen, Ding Zuan, and Feng Huai all said: "During the mourning for a long period, one can marry off daughters." Scholars Pei Songzhi and He Chengtian from the Song Dynasty also said: "When daughters mourn for a long period, they can also get married." Although Fan Jian, Xun Bozi, and others also proposed different opinions, they were unable to refute this view.
In the sixth year of Taishi, Yu He proposed a viewpoint: "Only when mourning for a long period can one get married." At that time, there was a broad discussion, and everyone agreed with Yu He's opinion. In the eleventh year of Qiyongming, the Grand Marshal's son died, and the Emperor's children observed a long mourning period. The Left Minister Gu Gao believed, "During the later stages of long mourning, not only can princesses marry off, but princes can also get married." These statements contradict the original intent of etiquette, merely for convenience. Xu Yuan and Wang Wenxian both said: "After the mourning period ends and it is downgraded to a long mourning period, one cannot get married." This aligns with etiquette, but their explanations are incomplete.
In the tenth year of Tianjian, Princess Xin'an was about to get married, but it coincided with the mourning period for the eldest son of Linchuan, which caused quite a stir. We carefully studied the relevant regulations and managed to clarify the situation. The Crown Prince has now raised this question, asking if a wedding ceremony can be held during the later stages of major mourning, similar to those for minor mourning. According to the "Book of Rites," mourning for a minor loss is originally a shorter period, so those ceremonies cannot be held. Furthermore, since the mourning period was initially for a scheduled mourning but was later downgraded to major mourning, those ceremonies should not be held either. The common folk interpretation is from Zheng Xuan, who believes that downgrading is permissible.
The "Miscellaneous Records of the Book of Rites" states: "In the later stages of mourning for a major loss, one can hold a coming-of-age ceremony and marry off a daughter." This means that if one is in mourning for a major loss and the son is in mourning for a minor loss, after a month, if the situation eases somewhat, it is permitted to hold a coming-of-age ceremony and marry off a daughter. This indicates that even in the later stages of mourning for a minor loss, one can also take a wife. The earlier statement that "in the later stages of mourning for a major loss, one can hold a coming-of-age ceremony and marry off a daughter" refers to the person mourning for a major loss, who cannot take a wife. The later statement that "in the later stages of mourning for a minor loss, one can hold a coming-of-age ceremony and marry off a daughter" implies that not only can the son hold a coming-of-age ceremony and marry off a daughter, but one can also take a wife. This leads to a contradiction in the statements.
Weddings are a significant matter for the state and should have a unified standard. Now, the royal family and the relatives cannot casually raise questions, and the officials of rites cannot arbitrarily interpret them either. We should adhere to these regulations moving forward!
During the Later Qi dynasty, there was a rule that when a prince, princess, empress dowager, concubine, or someone above the third rank passed away, a white drum could be used during the funeral, and it would be returned once the funeral was completed. Princes, county princesses, empress dowagers, officials of the third rank or higher, as well as their servants, could stand next to the cypress tree at the entrance of the mourning hall. Officials of the third rank or higher and fifth-rank founding meritorious officials could use square flags. Those below the fourth rank, including commoners, would use funeral banners. The length of the banners would be nine tassels for officials of the first rank, seven tassels for officials of the second and third ranks, five tassels for officials of the fourth and fifth ranks, three tassels for officials of the sixth and seventh ranks, and only small flags for officials of the eighth rank and below, including commoners. The length of these small flags would be one zhen for officials of the third rank or higher and founding sons and males, one lun for officials of the fourth and fifth ranks, and one jiao for officials of the sixth to ninth ranks. The length for commoners should not exceed seven feet.
When Wang Yuangi's son wanted to relocate his grandparents' graves, he was uncertain about what mourning attire to wear. Xing Zicai said, "The Book of Rites states, 'when relocating graves, one should wear coarse linen.' Zheng Xuan's commentary clarifies that this applies to a minister for the ruler, the son for the father, and the wife for the husband—only these three individuals. However, the eldest great-grandson and grandson who bear the responsibility, when relocating their great-grandparents' or grandparents' graves and observing a three-year mourning period, should all wear coarse linen attire. However, it only mentions these three individuals in this context, so if this is not an omission, it suggests that only a general principle is being conveyed."
At the beginning of the Kaihuang era, Emperor Gaozu wanted to organize the ceremonial system. The Minister of Ceremonies, Niu Hong, submitted a memorial saying: "Now the enlightened teachings are somewhat in decline, and the country's ceremonial system has deficiencies. The systems of the Han and Jin dynasties were formulated according to the circumstances of their times and are insufficient for governing the country and educating the populace. Furthermore, it is the ruler's responsibility to establish the systems of ritual and music. Wang Jian from Jiangnan is merely a local official, and his privately compiled rituals contradict many ancient practices. For example, the place for offering sacrifices is not in the eastern steps, and the entrance of the mourning hall should not be adorned with such elaborate ceremonial vessels. For generations, the Xiao clan's practices (Xiao Liang and Xiao Qi) were followed nationwide. After the Northern Wei and Northern Qi dynasties, customs varied significantly and were blindly imitated without proper study, leading to the establishment of these customs in Shandong. Since the Western Wei, the country has lacked clear definition of etiquette for guests. Now that the country enjoys a time of peace and prosperity, it is essential to re-establish the ceremonial system, drawing from earlier classics to eliminate these undesirable customs." The emperor issued a decree saying, "This is acceptable." Niu Hong then requested the summoning of scholars to compile one hundred volumes of rituals. All were based on the standards set by Eastern Qi's "Rituals," with slight reference to Wang Jian's etiquette. After the revision was completed, it was presented to the emperor, who ordered its implementation nationwide, to be adhered to by all.
From the highest nobles to the common people, there are clear rules for funeral rituals that cannot be changed at will. If a first-rank official passes away, the Minister of Rites is responsible for overseeing the funeral, while the Ceremony Officer is responsible for explaining the funeral rituals. If an official of second rank or higher passes away, the Deputy Minister of Rites oversees, and the Deputy Ceremony Officer explains the etiquette. If an official of fifth rank and above passes away, or if a direct relative of an official of third rank or higher passes away, a Chief Ceremonial Officer will explain the funeral rituals. Officials who pass away while in office are allowed to be buried in court dress; those with nobility titles must be buried in ceremonial robes; those who are not officials are buried in white headscarves and plain clothing. Female officials are also buried in appropriate attire based on their rank. Gold, silver, and jewels cannot be placed in the coffin. The number of bearers for the coffin is also predetermined: first-rank officials use six poles, officials of fifth rank and above use four poles, and officials of sixth rank or lower use two poles. As for the hearse, officials of third rank and above use a lacquered umbrella-covered carriage with a red silk net on top, decorated with painted designs, dragons on the sides, and six Su embroidery tassels hanging from the cover pole. Officials of seventh rank and above also use a lacquered umbrella-covered carriage with painted cloud decorations on the cover and four Su embroidery tassels hanging. Officials of eighth rank or lower and common people use a plain carriage without an umbrella, cover, tassels, or painted decorations. The number of bearers for the coffin is also predetermined: fifty bearers for first-rank officials, forty for those of third rank and above, and thirty for fourth-rank officials, all wearing cloth headscarves and dark clothes.
The funerals of officials ranked third grade and above must have four guiding soul banners, four ceremonial cloths, six bells, and six flags. Officials of fifth grade and above use two guiding soul banners, two ceremonial cloths, four bells, and four flags. Officials of ninth grade and above use two bells and two flags. Funerals of officials ranked fourth grade and above must use Fangxiang-style puppets, while funerals of officials ranked seventh grade and above must use Tui-style puppets. In the capital, burials must be conducted seven miles outside the city. Officials of third grade and above may erect a stele, with a dragon-shaped top and a turtle-shaped base, and the base must not exceed nine feet in height. Officials of seventh grade and above can erect a stone tablet, four feet high, with a jade tablet-shaped top and a square base. If someone of high moral character and renowned filial piety passes away, even without a noble title, a petition may be submitted to the court for permission to erect a stone tablet.
The three-year mourning period does not include leap months. The mourning period for lower-ranked officials is only calculated when there is a leap month. If someone dies in a leap month, the rituals and memorial dates are based on the month associated with the leap month.
Mourning attire is not permitted in official offices. Officials who are in mourning and have not been dismissed must wear a gauze hat when working outside. If summoned by the court due to a major mourning event, they must wear a black silk mourning skirt and hat. If entering the palace or attending court, the attire must comply with official regulations.
Alas, I feel distressed; dressed in full mourning attire, even if someone comes to comfort me, I cannot take part in condolences, celebrations, or banquets until the mourning period concludes. If the mourning period is still ongoing and the burial has not occurred, I definitely cannot participate in these activities either, not until the mourning period is over. Mourning for lower-ranked individuals should adhere to established regulations.
If during my mourning period there are ceremonies such as court conferments, I must participate according to the rules, with the ceremonial procession and all the usual elements, except for music. However, if war breaks out, these rules may be disregarded.
After the unification of the Qin Dynasty, the ritual of paying tribute was abolished. It was not until the Zhou Dynasty appointed Xiao Cha as the King of Liang, up until the Sui Dynasty, that Liang was considered a vassal state, and the ceremony of audience with the court was restored. When the King of Liang went to visit the Zhou Dynasty, as soon as he entered the capital, the Grand Chancellor of the Zhou Dynasty instructed the appropriate officials to prepare tribute. The tribute included five types of livestock, ninety baskets of rice, thirty-five jars of assorted meat sauces, eighteen pots of wine, fifty carts each of rice and grains, and one hundred carts of firewood. After the King of Liang arrived, the Grand Minister arranged for nine officials to escort him to his lodgings. The King of Liang offered silk and horses in return and also arranged for nine officials to welcome him. After the ceremony concluded, the King of Liang took his leave.
The next day, King Liang attended court and participated in the ancestral sacrifices to the Zhou king at the ancestral temple. After the sacrifices, the Grand Minister sent an official wearing a dark crown, riding in a chariot, accompanied by nine officials as guides, delivering food in varying portions to King Liang and his attendants. After delivering the food, the Grand Minister sent another official, dressed in ceremonial robes, riding in a chariot, carrying gifts, with nine officials as guides to pay respects to King Liang. King Liang had nine officials ready to greet them at the door. The following day, King Liang, dressed in court attire, rode in a chariot to return gifts to that official. The official, dressed in a ceremonial cap, welcomed him at the main gate, and gifts were exchanged at the central pillar of the hall. After another day, King Liang, dressed in court attire, arranged for nine officials, rode in a chariot, and prepared a ceremonial escort to visit that official. After the formalities were completed, that official hosted a banquet for King Liang. The next day, one of the three orphans brought gifts to pay respects to King Liang. The following day, King Liang returned the gifts. After another day, King Liang visited the three orphans, with the ceremonial protocol mirroring that of visiting the three dukes. The next day, a minister brought gifts to comfort King Liang. King Liang visited this minister, and the ceremonial protocol mirrored that of visiting the three orphans. Then the three dukes, the three orphans, and the six ministers each held a banquet in honor of King Liang, and their subordinate officials also participated. The livestock, rice, and cloth for the banquets matched the standards set by the three dukes.
In the first month of the fourth year of the Kaihuang era, Emperor Xiao Hui of the Liang Dynasty traveled to Chang'an to pay his respects to Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty. He initially lodged outside the city. Emperor Wen ordered Prince Guangping Yang Xiong and the Minister of Interior Affairs, Wei Shikang, to bring the Emperor's imperial credentials to welcome him. The officials in charge of security established camp near the inn. Yang Xiong and his party waited in a simple tent. Xiao Hui, standing on the eastern steps of the inn, facing west, wore a ceremonial crown and a crimson robe with a jade belt. His civil and military officials accompanied him, in a manner as formal as that of the Liang Dynasty. Yang Xiong and his party stood to the right of the inn's gate, facing east. Xiao Hui sent the Minister of the Interior, Liu Guyan, to explain their purpose to Yang Xiong and his party. Wei Shikang said, "We are here to welcome the Emperor of the Liang Dynasty on the orders of our Emperor." Liu Guyan reported back to Xiao Hui. Xiao Hui emerged to greet Yang Xiong and his party outside the inn, facing west, and performed two ceremonial bows. The chief official guided Yang Xiong and Xiao Hui into the inn and into the courtyard. Xiao Hui faced north, performed two more bows, and accepted the imperial edict from Emperor Wen. It was only then that Yang Xiong and his party emerged, standing to the right of the road outside the inn, facing east. Xiao Hui escorted them to the gate, facing west, and performed two more bows.
During the formal audience, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, wearing a ceremonial crown and a crimson robe, received Xiao Hui in the Taixing Hall with all due pomp, adhering to all the court protocols. Xiao Hui wore a travel crown and court attire to enter the hall. After exchanging formal salutations, they each took their leave.
In ancient times, when the emperor was to lead troops into battle, he should first go to the altar of the state to offer sacrifices, then to the ancestral temple to pay homage, and finally to make offerings to heaven and earth. After returning, he also had to make offerings to report to the deities of heaven and earth. During the Tianjian period of the Liang Dynasty, Lu Lian established military rituals that followed this old practice. Emperor Wen of Sui said: "The 'appropriate' refers to the legitimacy of the campaign, 'to report' refers to informing the ancestral temple of the campaign plan, and 'to decide' refers to determining whether to go to war based on the timing of heaven; these three matters I cannot make these decisions alone, I only need to present offerings and accept the mandate of heaven." Lu Lian could not respond. Yan Zhizhi also debated this, and in the end, it was decided to use livestock and offerings for the sacrifices, and to do the same upon returning to court.
It is said that the emperor of Qi personally led his troops into battle, and the event was truly grand! He first donned the heavenly crown, with civil and military officials standing by, creating a very impressive scene. The officials reported that it was time to change clothes, so the emperor went in to change into military attire, wearing a cap with a sable tail on the left, before coming out. After the oath-taking ceremony, a date was chosen to prepare for the formal procession, and they rode in a wooden chariot to the ancestral temple. They first invited the deity from the temple to the sacrificial cart, waiting to depart.
Next, they went to the altar of the state, where officials used the blood of pigs and sheep as offerings for the military drums, and then invited the main statue of the state deity onto the cart, waiting to depart. A date was then selected to review the troops, preparing for a grand ceremony, just as solemn as a sacrifice to heaven. Afterwards, another date was chosen to sacrifice to the deities of the earth, the land of the gods, mountains, rivers, and seas. Then a swearing-in ceremony was held, where the generals arranged the sacrificial livestock on the southern side of the sacrificial pit, facing north. An official read the oath in front of the sacrificial pit, cut the ears of the livestock, and received the blood for the sacrifice. The emperor took the ears of the livestock, distributed them to the generals, and then placed the ears in the sacrificial pit. Then everyone took a blood oath together, and the blood was also placed in the sacrificial pit. After the ceremony concluded, the livestock and the oath were buried together.
Afterwards, determine the auspicious dates, erect military flags on the altar, and perform sacrifices with the highest offerings. Dispatch officials to conduct sacrifices at renowned mountains, rivers, and landmarks along the route. As they near the battlefield, choose an auspicious day, prepare black sacrificial livestock, set up military formations, establish altars facing the northeast, and hold a sacrificial ceremony. The Grand Marshal, akin to the Minister of Defense, offers arrows, officials present the blood of pigs and sheep, and perform the music of "Da Hui." After the ceremony, remove the sacrificial animals and burn the firewood.
On the day before the battle, the emperor offers sacrifices to the ancestors, and the Minister of Works (official in charge of civil engineering) sacrifices to the land. If victorious, perform sacrifices to the ancestors and the land using the highest offerings. Reward the distinguished soldiers with the highest offerings, summon the distinguished soldiers to the Gate of Merit, and confer titles on them in the divine tribunal. If the battle is lost, punish the soldiers who did not complete their tasks, execute them in the divine tribunal, and then withdraw the troops back to the capital.
After returning to the capital, first conduct sacrifices at the ancestral temple and the altar of the land, then choose a day to hold a grand victory banquet, which is equally magnificent. Officials document the army's return to the capital and the sacrificial rites at the ancestral temple, honor the soldiers for their achievements during the victory banquet, and give rewards according to custom.
During the Sui Dynasty, the system stipulated that when the emperor traveled through famous mountains and rivers, relevant departments were to hold sacrificial ceremonies. Sacrifices to the deities of the mountains and rivers were made using "Tai Lao" (sacrifices of cattle, sheep, and pigs), while sacrifices to the mountains and rivers used "Shao Lao" (sacrifices of cattle and sheep). If the emperor was leading a campaign or on a tour, the sacrificial ceremonies were as grand as those for the sacrifices to the deities, state, and temples, and the return journey also required sacrifices. Before departure, a "Li Ji" (ritual offering) was to be held. The specific ceremony was as follows: relevant departments would pile up earth in an open area outside the city gate, shaped like a mountain, and dig a pit. Then, a sheep would be slaughtered, and sacrificial vessels and offerings would be arranged. When the emperor's carriage was about to arrive, the offerings, including dried meat and meat sauce, would be placed on the earth mound, with the sheep placed on the "Li"—a wooden block under the axle—facing west. Next, wine would be arranged, the sheep would be butchered, and along with other offerings, buried in the pit. After the carriage arrived, the "Tai Pu" (the official responsible for the emperor's horses and carriages) would perform sacrifices on both sides of the axle and in front of the wheels, after which the emperor could drink wine and accept the wine cup offered by officials, finally stepping onto the "Li" to continue on his way.
Next, let’s continue to look at the details of the Sui Dynasty emperor's sacrificial ceremonies during travel. You see, this ritual is quite complex, with strict regulations governing everything from the preparation of offerings to the sacrificial process. This reflects the Sui rulers' reverence for the deities of heaven and earth, as well as their intention to maintain the order of governance through sacrifices. It is not merely a simple ceremony, but a political symbol that demonstrates the supreme authority of the emperor. Just think about it, the emperor's travels, surrounded by attendants, with such a grand sacrificial ceremony; the grandeur and scale of the spectacle must have been awe-inspiring. Behind this, it also reflects the strict social hierarchy and intricate ceremonial norms of that era.
In the year 613 AD, Emperor Yang of Sui planned to attack Liaodong and first constructed two altars for the gods of the state by the banks of the Sanggan River, located south of Jicheng, and set up a square sacrificial site, preparing to hold a ceremony to honor the state gods. The emperor fasted in the Huaihuang Hall of the Lingshu Palace, and the officials and guards also observed fasts in their respective places, with the twelve guards also observing fasts. The emperor, dressed in his ceremonial robe, sat in the jade chariot, ready with the ceremonial procession. After the ceremony, the emperor boarded the golden chariot, wearing the crown of heaven, and returned to the palace. Then, he worshipped the supreme god in the southern part of the palace, stacked firewood on the sacrificial altar, and placed the tablet honoring his great ancestor in the east. The emperor, dressed in a great fur coat and wearing the crown, rode in the jade chariot, offering sacrifices of jade and silk, with the ceremony similar to that of worshipping the state gods. After the army was given the sacrificial meat, the emperor took his position, observed the burning firewood, and then left. On that day, an altar was also erected north of Jicheng in honor of Mazu, and firewood was burned. On that day, the relevant departments were also directed to honor the former pastoral officials and cavalry, though there was no music of bells and drums.
The army is about to set out, and the emperor personally bestows command to the generals at the Linshuo Palace. Each army comprises one general and one deputy general, with forty cavalry units, each made up of one hundred men, who carry a large flag. Ten units form a regiment, and each regiment has a minor general. The first regiment is dressed in bright armor made of intertwined blue silk, with iron protective gear, blue tassels, bearing the Suanni flag; the second regiment wears crimson armor made of intertwined vermilion silk, with armor adorned with beast patterns, red tassels, bearing the Pixiu flag; the third regiment is in bright armor made of intertwined white silk, with iron protective gear, white tassels, bearing the Bixie flag; the fourth regiment wears dark armor made of intertwined black silk, with armor adorned with beast patterns, black tassels, bearing the Liubo flag. The vanguard features a collection of drums and wind instruments, including eighteen large drums, small drums, war drums, long horns, and medium horns, as well as two pairs of clappers and cymbals. The rear army has a set of gongs and wind instruments, equipped with two gongs, four flutes, and four horns, one ceremonial drum, four Wuhuan flutes, four bamboo flutes, and eighteen large horns. The infantry is made up of eighty units, also divided into four regiments, each with a minor general. The first regiment is given a blue falcon banner for each unit; the second regiment has a yellow falcon banner for each unit; the third regiment has a white falcon banner for each unit; the fourth regiment has a gray falcon banner for each unit. Long spears, shields, crossbows, arrows, and armor are allocated according to the size of the forces. Additionally, an envoy for negotiations of surrender is designated, equipped with two horses and a sedan chair, one white beast banner and one command staff, three cavalrymen, and twelve men for the sedan chair. The surrender envoy is tasked with pacifying the surrendered populace and is not under the command of the general, but in times of battle, he acts as a military overseer.
When the army set out, a great horn was blown once. The first infantry regiment marched out of the camp through the east gate and formed up facing east; the second regiment marched out through the south gate and formed up facing south; the third regiment marched out through the west gate and formed up facing west; the fourth regiment marched out through the north gate and formed up facing north. The four regiments surrounded the camp in a square formation, and then each regiment stood ready. The great horn was blown three times, and the drums and gongs sounded together as the first cavalry regiment began to march, with each unit spaced fifteen steps apart. Following that was the second regiment, then the front army's band, followed by a unit of archers, totaling two hundred cavalry, carrying flags depicting crouching beasts and bearing two long spears, with the general at the rear. Next came twenty pack horses, then the great horn, followed by the rear army's band, then the third regiment, then the fourth regiment, and finally the envoys of surrender. After that came the supply vehicles and scattered troops, also divided into four regiments. The first batch of supply vehicles set out to consolidate the eastern position, splitting into two routes, flanking the troops as they advanced; the second batch of supply vehicles set out to consolidate the southern position, flanking the troops as they advanced; the third batch of supply vehicles set out to consolidate the western position, flanking the troops as they advanced; the fourth batch of supply vehicles set out to consolidate the northern position, flanking the troops as they advanced. The deputy general led five hundred cavalry carrying the soaring leopard flag, bringing up the rear. Upon reaching the camp, the first cavalry regiment formed up on the east, the second regiment on the south, the band beside the general with their horses facing south. The third regiment formed up on the west, the fourth regiment on the north, forming a square position. The four cavalry regiments were on the outside, while the infantry and supply units entered the interior of the position, setting up camp in turn. Once the camp was established, the cavalry units formed a perimeter around the camp. The deputy general led the elite cavalry on patrol for inspection. The camp's setup involved encircling the perimeter with vehicles, with spears inserted between the vehicles, and then setting up a soldier's curtain, with livestock placed inside. Once everything was completed, the general, deputy general, and others returned to their respective tents. The infantry and scattered troops rotated duty every five days. Consequently, each day, a unit was dispatched, maintaining a distance of forty miles between them. After twenty-four days, all the troops had set out. The front and rear of the army were linked, the drums and horns were heard, and the flags extended for nine hundred sixty miles. The six armies led by the Son of Heaven set out in batches, in two parts one after the other, extending another eighty miles. In total, there were thirty armies on the roads, extending one thousand forty miles.
Each army uses silk belts, 1.5 feet long and 2 inches wide, with the army's name inscribed on them as a mark. In the Emperor's camp, which includes twelve guards, three platforms, five provinces, and nine temples, each must also have their army names inscribed, and they are not permitted to refer to themselves as platforms or provinces. From nobles to soldiers, including slaves, all wear silk belts fastened to their collars, referred to as "military belts." Each army is issued several hundred small flags, and if someone needs to be dispatched, they must carry a small flag. If someone leaves their own army without a flag, other armies will inspect their military belts, and if they are found not to belong to their army, they will be executed on the spot. In that year, Emperor Yang of Sui went to Wanghai Town to hold a sacrificial ceremony in honor of the Yellow Emperor. He ordered Wei Ji, the Tai Chang Shaoqing, and scholar Chu Liang to draft the sacrificial rites. The Emperor, officials, attendants, and generals who participated in the ceremony all observed a fast for one night. The relevant authorities provided tents and seating for the ceremony, designating seats for the burial of the Kan gods in the northwest. Two flags were raised outside the south gate. Bear skins were laid for the seat of Xuanyuan Huangdi within the moat, with armor and bows and arrows arranged beside the seat, and a long spear erected behind it. The Emperor came out from the side gate, and the officials all knelt and bowed twice in reverence. After the ritual, they returned to the palace. The custom during the Sui Dynasty was to hold sacrifices every mid-spring, conducted for Mazu at a large wetland. The officials participating in the sacrifice were required to fast for one day at the sacrificial site, pile firewood on the altar, and burn the sacrificial items following the ritual. Sacrifices to Xianmu were held in midsummer, Ma She in mid-autumn, and Ma Bu in mid-winter, all conducted on "Yang Qi" days. The sacrificial animals used were also few cattle, and similar to the sacrifice for Mazu, they were buried rather than burned.
In the 20th year of the Kaihuang era, Prince Yang Guang of Jin launched a northern expedition against the Turks. On the day of jǐwèi in April, the army arrived at the banks of the Yellow River, where a ceremony was held to honor Emperor Xuanyuan. They made a great offering as a sacrifice, arranged weapons, and performed the ritual of the three offerings.
In the Qi Dynasty, when a general was about to go to battle, a diviner would go to the ancestral temple to perform divination using turtle shells, and then the military flag and war drums were handed over to the general at the ancestral temple. The emperor, wearing formal ceremonial attire, went to the ancestral temple to pay respects to the founding emperor. After the worship was completed, the emperor stepped down to the middle of the steps, called the general up, and handed him the axe and halberd, saying, "From heaven to earth, everything is the general's responsibility!" He then handed the axe to the general, saying, "From the ground to the underworld, all is the general's responsibility!" After receiving the axe and halberd, the general replied, "National matters can’t be managed from the outside, and I can't arbitrarily command the army from within. Since I have accepted your orders and hold the power of the war drums, military flags, axe, and halberd, I hope to request one more thing." The emperor said, "As long as it is beneficial to the country, the general can decide for himself." The general climbed aboard the chariot, taking the axe and halberd into battle. The emperor personally pushed the war chariot to the entrance of the military camp, saying, "From here on out, everything is the general's responsibility!"
When the great general of the Zhou Dynasty went into battle, he would send the Grand Sacrificer carrying a sheep to offer sacrifices at the famous mountains and rivers along the way. In the first year of the Ming Emperor Wucheng, the Tuyuhun invaded the border. The emperor, dressed in casual clothes and riding a horse, sent the Grand Marshal Helan Xiang to the ancestral temple, where the officer in charge of the sacrificial rites handed the axe and halberd to the general. After the general accepted them, he handed them to his subordinates. After the ceremony, the general went out to retrieve the weapons.
During the Sui Dynasty, the regulations required that the Crown Prince personally lead troops or that a general would go into battle, and they were required to offer pork as a sacrifice to the war drums and report to the state and ancestral temple. After receiving the axe and halberd, they were not allowed to return home to sleep that night. In the eighth year of the Kaihuang era, Prince Jin Guang was to attack the Chen Kingdom, and the Minister of Internal Affairs, Li Delin, served as the acting Grand Marshal and went to the Temple of the Founding Emperor to offer sacrifices. After the ceremony, he ordered the relevant departments to perform sacrifices at the Taisha (Land God Temple).
In ancient times, military training took three years, and after completion, a military review ceremony was held. By the Spring and Autumn period, military exercises known as "sou" and "yi" were established to test training results. During the Liang and Chen Dynasties, they modeled their large-scale military exercises after those held in the 25th year of the Yuanjia era of the Song Dynasty at Xuanwu Square.
The specific process was as follows: a large military tent was set up on the southern ridge of Mufu Mountain, and tents were also erected for princes and ministers. The day before the exercise, a hunting expedition was conducted, with cavalry positioned to encircle the area. The Right General was responsible for commanding the right wing, the Left General for the left wing, and the Grand Marshal commanded the entire army. On the day of the hunt, the Chamberlain was to report three times, each accompanied by the sound of drums. After the three reports, a small ceremonial guard would welcome the emperor. The emperor, dressed in military attire, would ride out, accompanied by attendants in crimson clothing and headscarves, with yellow banners leading the way, a strict guard, and music playing, creating a spectacle akin to a formal ceremonial guard.
After the hunt, a banquet was held to reward the soldiers and to count the number of game captured. As a warning, a person would be executed to deter violations of military discipline. Once all ceremonies were completed, the emperor would then return to the palace.
It is said that the Emperor of the Later Qi would hold military exercises outside the capital every autumn. The officials in charge of the drills would first choose a flat area and plan the routes and zones for the two armies' movements. Then, in the northern section, another area would be set aside for the emperor to observe.
The emperor ordered the selection of elite soldiers and taught everyone practical tactics. The rules for troop deployment are as follows: younger soldiers are in the front, older soldiers are at the rear; during retreat, older soldiers are in the front, younger soldiers are in the back. Older soldiers carry bows and arrows, while younger soldiers carry flags. Brave soldiers carry musical instruments such as gongs, drums, knives, and shields at the forefront, with other warriors following in order, soldiers with spears in the middle, and archers at the rear.
The generals first train the soldiers' eyes to familiarize them with the commands indicated by the flags, such as kneeling when the flag is lowered. They then train the soldiers' ears to attune their ears to the rhythm of the drums, moving forward when the drum sounds and stopping when the gong sounds. Next, they train the soldiers' minds to understand the strict discipline of military law and the clear consequences of rewards and punishments. They then train the soldiers' hands to become proficient in the use of various weapons and prepare for battle. Finally, they train the soldiers' feet to learn how to kneel, line up, and march on muddy roads.
Five days before the exercise, the soldiers undergo strict training on the exercise ground, erecting flags in specified colors and orientations as markers for the camp gates. Colorful flags are erected in the center and at the four corners of the exercise ground. Soldiers participating in the exercise must return to their respective camps for standby.
At the first beat of the warning drum, the soldiers immediately stand ready; at the second sound, the warriors put on their armor; at the third sound, the infantry assembles into formation and awaits orders. The generals stand beneath their respective army's banners and drums.
At this time, the officials responsible for the ceremony arranged the emperor's ceremonial retinue, with the emperor wearing military uniform, riding in a carriage, and the Grand Marshal in armor, riding in his own carriage, leading the emperor into the hall of audience. Other officials lined up to accompany him. Once the emperor was seated, the two armies alternated between offense and defense. The first side represented the guest, while the second side represented the host, arranging their formations and strategies based on the Five Elements theory of generation and overcoming.
During the spring hunting ceremony held by the Later Qi dynasty, the organizing officials were on high alert and ready, erecting flags to designate the parking spots for the hunted game. The day before the hunt, orders were given to set up a surrounding circle. One general was assigned to oversee the left flank of the encirclement, while another general was tasked with overseeing the right flank. The Grand Marshal commanded and coordinated all the troops from the center position. The emperor, dressed in simple ceremonial attire and wearing the celestial crown, rode in a wooden chariot to the palace. He prepared to hunt personally, donning military attire, with all the spear-wielding guards standing ready. The military formed the encirclement, with flags and war drums responding to each other, as the soldiers advanced silently, gritting their teeth. The encirclement usually left a gap for three drives to herd the game. Once the encirclement was closed, the officials on horseback commanded, "No birds or beasts that are unsuitable for the sacrificial table may be shot; no leather, teeth, bones, horns, or feathers that cannot be placed in vessels may be shot." After the encirclement closed, the Grand Marshal sounded the war drum to urge the troops to tighten the encirclement, and all the soldiers rang gongs, beat drums, and sounded horns until they reached the designated location. The Grand Marshal stationed himself at the North Banner Gate, while the two encircling troops were stationed at the left and right Banner Gates respectively. The emperor entered the hunting grounds from the South Banner Gate and personally hunted the birds and beasts. The heralds collected the game using escort vehicles, transporting it back to the palace, displaying it north of the flag. The princes and nobles took turns hunting and brought their catches to the flag. After the ceremony, the Grand Marshal beat the war drum to disband the encirclement, and the troops returned to their posts. Palace officials led their subordinates to gather the game, filling the escort vehicles. The emperor returned to the palace. He then ordered the relevant officials to select thirty from each type of game, with part set aside for sacrificial offerings, part to entertain guests, and part for the royal kitchen. The remaining game was distributed outside the encirclement for the soldiers who had distinguished themselves to enjoy. After the ceremony, the emperor changed his attire, and the spear-wielding guards sheathed their weapons and returned. The summer "Xiamiao" (similar to a hunting ceremony), the autumn "Qiushao" (autumn hunting), and the winter "Dongqiu" all featured similar rituals.
During the Heqing era, the court mandated that military exercises be held every year starting from the fifteenth day of the twelfth lunar month until New Year's Eve. The two armies and their horses, with the right flank entering from the Qianqiu Gate and the left flank entering from the Wansui Gate, both moved southward to Yongxiang and arrived at the northern side of Zhaoyang Palace, where they converged. One army entered from the West Shangge Pavilion, while the other entered from the East Shangge Pavilion, both proceeding from south of the Duanmen Gate to the bridge in front of the Changhe Gate to participate in archery competitions. After the competition, the troops were dispersed outside the southern city walls.
On the third day of the third lunar month, the emperor dressed in plain clothes and rode in a carriage to the archery field. Upon arriving at the archery platform, the emperor sat down, with the crown prince and a retinue of officials also taking their seats. They began singing, drinking, and toasting. The emperor returned to the inner hall to change clothes, had his horse brought, and the officials presented bows and arrows. After shooting, the emperor returned to his seat and aimed at a special target. After that, the ministers began shooting arrows at five different targets.
First and second-rank officials shot thirty arrows per person, with one arrow used to adjust the horse's position, fifteen arrows shot down, ten arrows shot up, three arrows shot at a deer target, and three arrows shot at a beast head target. Third-rank officials shot twenty-five arrows per person, with one arrow to adjust the horse, five arrows shot down, ten arrows shot up, three arrows shot at a deer target, three arrows shot at a paper target, and three arrows shot at a beast head target. Fourth-rank officials also shot twenty-five arrows per person, with one arrow to adjust the horse, five arrows shot down, eight arrows shot up, two arrows shot at a deer target, two arrows shot at a paper target, and two arrows shot at a beast head target. Fifth-rank officials shot fifteen arrows per person, with one arrow to adjust the horse, four arrows shot down, five arrows shot up, two arrows shot at a deer target, two arrows shot at a paper target, and one arrow shot at a beast head target. The guards and ceremonial guards each shot ten arrows, with one arrow to adjust the horse, four arrows shot down, and five arrows shot up.
When autumn arrived, the grand archery event became even more grandiose. The emperor still wore his usual clothing and took the ornate seven-treasure carriage to the archery field, which featured seven target positions. Officials ranked third and above shot arrows at the first target. First-rank officials shot fifty arrows: one arrow to adjust their horse, fifteen arrows at the lower target, twenty-five at the upper target, three at the deer target, three at the paper target, and three at the beast head target. Second-rank officials shot forty-six arrows: one arrow to adjust their horse, fifteen arrows at the lower target, twenty-two at the upper target, two at the deer target, three at the paper target, and three at the beast head target. Third and fourth rank officials shot arrows at the second target position, with third-rank officials shooting forty-two arrows: one arrow to adjust their horse, twelve arrows at the lower target, twenty-two at the upper target, two at the deer target, two at the paper target, and three at the beast head target; fourth-rank officials shot thirty-seven arrows: one arrow to adjust their horse, eleven arrows at the lower target, nineteen at the upper target, one at the deer target, two at the paper target, and three at the beast head target. Fifth-rank officials shot thirty-two arrows at the third target position; sixth-rank officials shot twenty-seven arrows at the fourth target position; seventh-rank officials shot twenty-one arrows at the fifth target position; eighth-rank officials shot sixteen arrows at the sixth target position; and ninth-rank officials shot ten arrows at the seventh target position. The distribution of arrows followed a similar pattern, but the target positions and the number of arrows varied.
This grand archery event also had many positions: the grand general (the position held by the Grand Commandant), one archery officer, and two officials responsible for recording. Each target position had a target commander and an archery officer, along with four soldiers at the target position, an officer on a white horse leading the procession, an official responsible for scoring the targets, and an official responsible for the special target. Additionally, each target position had various clerks and soldiers assigned to specific tasks.
During the spring of the Later Zhou Dynasty, the Grand Marshal conducted military exercises in Laitian, ordering officials at all levels to bring flags, drums, bells, chimes, and other military band instruments, and lead their troops to assemble. Latecomers would face punishment. The Grand Marshal set up military flags at the rear of the formation to gather all the troops. After daybreak, the military flags were lowered, and those who had not arrived were punished. Then, infantry and cavalry formations were arranged as if preparing for battle. The Grand Marshal faced north and swore an oath to the soldiers. The entire army acted in accordance with the commands of the drums and horns, using them as a guide for advancing and retreating. On the day of the hunt, a flag was erected to mark the entrance and exit of the camp to the north of Laitian. Each leader led soldiers and cavalry to enter in turn. The designated officials were responsible for counting the personnel at the gate to maintain order. After entering the camp, hunting areas were allocated, with infantry positioned at the front in steep terrain and cavalry at the rear, and vice versa in flat terrain. Once the formation was complete, everyone took their seats, and then mounted sentries were set up, with the relevant departments setting up a pyre for sacrifices in front of the formation. Sacrifices were made to the Yellow Emperor Xuanyuan with a grand offering, and an altar was set up in the hunting area, with two flags raised and models of five types of weapons placed next to the altar, followed by the ceremony of the Three Offerings. Then hunting was carried out, and the game obtained was offered as a sacrifice to the land god. In midsummer, training camps were established, with formations similar to military exercises, followed by hunting to obtain game for sacrifices to the earth god. In the mid-autumn season, military training was conducted with formations similar to military exercises, followed by hunting to obtain game for sacrifices to the deities of the four cardinal directions. In mid-winter, a large-scale military review was conducted with formations similar to military exercises, followed by hunting to obtain game for sacrifices to the ancestors.
During the Mengqiu autumn season, the arrival of the Venus star is celebrated. On the night when the Venus star appears in the west, three days beforehand, the Grand Marshal orders the preparations to put up flags outside Yangwu Gate. The Minister of Works oversees the construction of the altar, and the relevant departments prepare the wool and blood for the offerings, then they ascend the altar to sing and perform "Zhaoxia." The officials present offer their respects, and after the ceremony ends, they leave. After a quarter past noon, the soldiers from the six armies, all in armor, gather beneath the flags. The military officials urge the twelve generals to keep order in the streets, while civil and military officials don armor to welcome the emperor. The musicians strike the yellow bell, and the five bells on the right chime in response. The emperor, clad in armor and escorted by guards, sets out, with the ceremonial procession following the usual protocols, without drums or horns, performing the sacrifices after exiting the city gates. Upon reaching their destination, they set up camp. Five quarters of an hour before the Venus star appears, both inside and outside are under strict martial law; the emperor takes his place, and the six armies create a loud uproar, performing the ceremony of the three offerings. Each time a sacrifice is made, the noise matches that of the first offering. After the ceremony concludes, they burn the offerings, distribute the sacrificial meat, and return amidst the clamor.
The Sui Dynasty's system stipulated that during archery sacrifices, game must be shot at the archery range, and livestock is used for the offerings. The army must inspect its weapons and equipment every year in the ninth month of the lunar calendar and conduct military exercises in the eleventh month. In the third year of the Daye era, Emperor Yang Guang received tributes in Yulin from the Turkic Khagan Qimin and various leaders from the Western Regions and Eastern Hu. The emperor, eager to showcase his powerful army, ordered the relevant departments to arrange the winter hunting ceremony.
The emperor ordered the Department of Yu (responsible for managing mountains and rivers) to measure a one-hundred-mile range to the north and south of Yanshan, and to set up markers at the border. Two days before the hunt began, the Ministry of War set up flags at the border markers. A flag was placed every five miles, dividing them into forty armies, each consisting of ten thousand soldiers, with five thousand of them being cavalry. On the day before the hunt, each general led their army to gather under their respective flags. Anyone who had not arrived by the time the drumbeat sounded would be executed! The emperor also ordered forty envoys, each holding a flag and a staff, to relay the hunting orders and remain at the army camps to oversee the hunt.
The emperor sat facing south, ready to begin the hunt. He wore purple trousers and a black sash, riding in a splendid decorated pig-drawn carriage similar to the hunting carriages used in the capital during the Han Dynasty. The carriage had large wheels featuring coiled dragons carved into the hubs, pulled by six black steeds.
The Grand Preceptor arranged one hundred and twenty drums, pipes, cymbals, flutes, and horns on either side of the emperor. Officials in military attire rode in behind, entering the hunting grounds in a grand procession. The generals also rode into the grounds on horseback. Additionally, twelve hundred cavalrymen were prepared to drive the game.
The pig-drawn carriage stopped, and the official in charge of the reins stowed the large reins. Officials of lower rank prepared their bows and arrows, lining up in front of the emperor's carriage. Once the small reins were stowed, the officials began to drive the game, urging them to run past the emperor.
The first time the prey ran by, the officials prepared their bows and arrows, waiting for the emperor's command. The second time the prey ran by, the general responsible for the emperor's safety stepped forward to present the bows and arrows. The third time the prey ran by, the emperor began to shoot, with drums and music playing, while he sat in his chariot shooting arrows. Each time the prey was driven out, there were at least three animals. When the emperor shot, he raised the large bow; when the princes took their shots, they used smaller bows; then it was the generals' turn to shoot, at this point, there was no music, and the cavalry driving the prey also ceased their actions. After that, soldiers from all around could join in the hunt.
The rules of hunting were: if an arrow hit the left thigh and exited through the right inner thigh, it was considered a top score; hitting the base of the right ear counted as a medium score; if the arrow hit the left thigh and exited through the right outer thigh, it was considered a low score. The prey came in groups and could not all be shot; injured prey could not be shot again; prey running towards a person could not be shot in the face; and prey that ran out of the enclosed area could not be pursued.
After the hunt ended, the Department of Game erected a flag within the enclosure. The drum music of the emperor's chariot and the drums of the various armies played at the same time, and the soldiers cheered with joy. All captured animals had to be brought to the flag, where their left ears were offered. Large prey belonged to the state, to be used in ancestral worship, before being sent back to the capital for sacrificial rites in the twelfth month; small prey belonged to individuals.
It is said that during the Qi Dynasty, on the last day of the twelfth month every year, 120 young musicians aged 10 to 12 were selected to wear red headbands, black robes, and play an instrument called "tao"; another 120 wore red trousers and played an instrument called bi jiao. These children were referred to as "zhenzi," totaling 240 individuals. Additionally, there was a figure wearing a golden mask with four eyes, a bear skin hat, a black top, and a red skirt, who held a spear and shield, called Fang Xiangshi. There were also twelve people dressed as various monsters such as Qiongqi and Zuming, all hairy with horns on their heads. These spirit chasers, led by the drum team and commanded by the Yellow Gate Attendant, were guided by the Chief Archer to drive away evil spirits in the palace.
At three o'clock in the evening, the gates of the palace were opened, and these spirit chasers gathered, dressed, and armed, ready for action. By four o'clock, the city gates opened as well, with guards on both sides standing ready. When it was getting light, the emperor took his place on the throne in casual attire, accompanied by nobles and officials of sixth rank and higher to observe. The spirit chasers beat drums, shouted, and entered through the west gate of the palace, driving away evil spirits throughout the palace. Then they split into two teams to perform the dance of Fang Xiangshi and the twelve beasts in the upper pavilion of the palace, shouting and cheering. Finally, they exited through the south gate of the palace, dividing into six teams and proceeding all the way outside the city.
The rules of the Sui Dynasty were similar, but on the last day of spring, the day before Lixia, a ritual to drive away ghosts was held to perform sacrifices at the palace gates and all four city gates to dispel negative energy. The day before the autumnal equinox was to dispel yang energy. On the last day of the twelfth month, a similar large-scale ritual to drive away ghosts was also held. Each city gate had to perform sacrifices of a ram and a rooster. The selection process for the diviner mirrored that of the Qi Dynasty. In winter, there were eight teams, while only four teams participated in the rituals during spring and autumn. In addition, there were twelve individuals responsible for inquiries, wearing red headscarves, black robes, and carrying whips, along with twenty-two assisting workers. One person played the role of Fangxiangshi, similar to the Qi Dynasty, wearing a golden mask, bear skin, black top, and red skirt. Another person took on the role of a singer, wearing a leather jacket and carrying a baton. There were ten drums and ten horns each. The supervisors would dig a pit in front of the palace gate and prepare roosters, rams, and wine. Before dawn, they would start banging gongs and drums and enter the palace. Fangxiangshi would carry a spear and shield, shouting to drive away evil spirits, then run to Xianyang Gate together, and then head to various city gates. Just before they left, the priests would cut open the chests of the sacrificial animals, perform the sacrifices at the city gates, offer prayers and drink wine, and finally bury the animals and wine together.
In the Later Qi Dynasty, if a solar eclipse occurred, the Taiji Hall's west wing in the imperial palace would have the throne arranged to face east, while the east wing would have the throne facing west. All officials were required to wear formal official robes. When the water in the sundial reached a quarter of an hour, the palace and the surrounding areas would go on lockdown. Only the middle gate of the three would be opened, and single gates would be closed. Three quarters of an hour before the eclipse began, the emperor would wear the ceremonial crown and sit on the throne. The guards remained calm and composed. If an emergency arose, the emperor would quickly leave the main hall at the sound of drums, go to the east wing, and change into a white jacket. Attendants would don red headscarves and carry swords while attending to the emperor. Officials from various departments would stand at their respective positions, wearing red headscarves and holding swords, facing the sun at their posts. Officials from relevant departments would station their subordinates at various palace gates, side gates, and near the land god's altar. The magistrate of Ye would lead his men to surround the altar and guard its four gates, wrapping the altar three times with a red silk rope. The chief priest would recite sacrificial texts to appease the land god. Two riders carrying wooden boards with battle reports would rush them to the Ministry of War, and the gatekeeper would quickly pass them along. At the same time, the Chief Minister of the Capital would be alerted to beat the drum based on the urgency. Once the sun reappeared, everything would return to normal, and the alert would be lifted.
In the Northern Wei period, after each victory in battle, to inform the public, they would hang cloth bearing written battle reports on poles, referred to as "lu bu." Eventually, others adopted this practice. During the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, the Emperor ordered the Minister of Ceremonies, Niu Hong, and the Crown Prince's advisor, Pei Zheng, to establish the protocol for the reading of the lu bu. When the Chen Dynasty was pacified in the ninth year of the Kaihuang era, the Prince of Jin utilized swift relay horses to deliver the lu bu. The Ministry of War proposed that the new protocol be observed during the reading. The Emperor then ordered the gathering of all officials and envoys from various regions outside Guangyang Gate, in formal court attire, standing according to their ranks. The Minister of State read the imperial edict, and all officials present performed the kowtow. Once the reading was concluded, everyone performed the kowtow again, followed by three ceremonial dances, and finally another kowtow. The counties and prefectures similarly adhered to this practice.
