The Tuyuhun people were originally the sons of Tufa Shegui, a Xianbei man from the western Liao region. Initially, the Xianbei had two sons, the elder named Tuyuhun and the younger named Ruoluohui. After Shegui's death, Ruoluohui inherited the tribe; this tribe became known as the Murong clan. Tuyuhun and Ruoluohui did not get along, so Tuyuhun moved to the west of the Longshan Mountains, settled south of Gansong Mountain, west of the Tao River, and extending south to Bailan Mountain, spanning several thousand square miles. Later, they used Tuyuhun as the country name.
During the Wei and Zhou dynasties, they started to refer to themselves as Khans. Their capital was Fusi City, fifteen miles west of Qinghai. However, the city didn’t have permanent residents; they moved with the water and grass. Their officials included princes, ministers, secretaries, court officials, and generals. The king wore a black hat while the queen adorned a golden flower. Their equipment and clothing were similar to those of the Central Plains. Many nobles wore a type of hat known as "mi rao," women wore skirts and jackets, braided their hair, and also wore beads and shells. This country did not have a fixed tax system. Murderers or horse thieves were sentenced to death, and other crimes could be redeemed with goods. Their customs were quite similar to the Turks. They had a mourning system when someone died, and the mourning attire was removed following the funeral. Their temperament was often greedy and cruel. This region produced barley, millet, and beans.
Qinghai stretches over a thousand miles, with some small mountains in the middle. In winter, the locals send their mares up into the mountains, believing this will help them produce dragon offspring. The Tuyuhun once obtained Persian horses, put them in Qinghai, and gave rise to the Qinghai horse breed, capable of running a thousand miles in a single day. There are abundant deposits of copper, iron, and cinnabar. Their territory also includes Shanshan and Qiemo. To the northwest, hundreds of miles of shifting sands stretch out. In summer, the hot winds often claim the lives of unwary travelers. When the hot wind is coming, old camels can sense it coming, stretch their necks and call out, then gather together and bury their mouths and noses in the sand. When people see this, they know to expect the hot winds, so they quickly cover their mouths and noses with felt to shield themselves.
As for Lü Kua, he was once a border bandit during the Zhou Dynasty. During the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, he led troops to attack Hongzhou. Emperor Wen of Sui considered Hongzhou too vast and sparsely populated to defend, so he abandoned it and sent General Yuan Xie with tens of thousands of infantry and cavalry to fight him. Lü Kua's forces mobilized from Mantou all the way to Shudun, with armored cavalry forming a continuous line. It was quite the spectacle! His subordinates, the General of Hexi, King of Dingcheng Zhong Lifu, and his son Kebohan, all led troops to resist. Yuan Xie fought numerous battles against them, winning each one, capturing and killing many enemies. Terrified, Lü Kua fled with his personal guards. All thirteen of his notable leaders, each with their own tribes, surrendered.
The emperor saw that Prince Gaoning was highly respected in the local area, so he appointed him as the Grand General and entrusted him with the management of the surrendered tribes. Other generals received rewards based on their contributions. Soon after, Lü Kua launched another attack on the border. The Governor of Xuzhou, Pi Zixin, led his troops to resist but was defeated by Lü Kua, resulting in his death in battle. The Commander of Wenzhou, Liang Yuan, led his elite troops to fight back, killing over a thousand enemies and driving Lü Kua away. Later, Lü Kua attacked Kuozhou, but was repelled by the local forces. Lü Kua held power for a century, frequently deposing and executing his crown princes on a whim or in fits of anger. Such occurrences were all too common. Later, the princes plotted to capture Lü Kua, surrender to the court, and request assistance from the border officials. The Governor of Qinzhou and the King of Hejian, Hong, requested permission to lead troops for support, but the emperor refused to grant his request. Consequently, their plan was leaked, and Lü Kua had them executed. Lü Kua subsequently named his youngest son, He, as the new crown prince. The Governor of Diezhou, Du Can, saw this as an opportunity to launch an attack on Lü Kua, but the emperor refused to grant his request.
Six years later, King Wei of Tuoba was afraid that his father would kill him, so he planned to lead 15,000 families to seek refuge with the imperial court, and even sent envoys to request the court to send troops to welcome them. The emperor said to his officials, "The customs of the Tuyuhun people are very different from ours; they do not emphasize filial piety between fathers and sons, which I find unacceptable. I have always sought to educate the people through benevolence and righteousness; how can I condone such wickedness! I should teach them how to be proper individuals." Then the emperor said to the envoy, "I have been appointed by heaven to govern the world, to nurture the people of the world, hoping that everyone will treat each other with benevolence and righteousness. Moreover, the bond between father and son is fundamental; how can they not care for each other! Although the Tuyuhun King is at fault, King Wei is his son and should advise him. If advising does not work, have his relatives and friends counsel him; if that does not work, then urge him with tears. People have emotions; he will definitely be moved. One cannot secretly plot rebellion and earn the label of being unfilial. The people of the world are all my subjects; when everyone does good, it brings me joy. Since King Wei has this idea of seeking refuge with me, I will instruct him on how to be a loyal subject and not send troops to help him do wrong deeds." Upon hearing this, King Wei abandoned this idea.
Eight years later, a king named Tuoba Mimi of the Tuyuhun tribe brought over a thousand households to submit. The emperor said, "All the world is my subject. Even in distant regions that are unfamiliar with our teachings, I will use benevolence and filial piety to educate them. The Tuyuhun king is incompetent and tyrannical. His family is terrified and wants to submit to the court to save themselves from calamity. However, I cannot accept those who betray their own kin. Their fundamental purpose of submission is to avoid disaster. If I refuse them now, it would be unjust. If they are sincere, they should be comforted and allowed to choose for themselves without sending troops to meet them. If their relatives and friends want to come, let them come; there's no need to persuade them." That year, Wang Yizipou, the King of Henan, passed away. Gaozu appointed his brother Shugui as his military successor. After subduing the Chen dynasty, Lv Kua was terrified, he fled and never dared to cause trouble again.
In the year 606 AD, Lv Kua died, and his son Fusi inherited the throne. The son of Fusi's brother pledged allegiance and sent many gifts, wanting to send his daughter to the harem as a concubine. Emperor Yang of Sui said, "This is insincere; it's merely a stopgap." Then he said to the son, "I know your king wants to send his daughter to me as a concubine. If I agree to your request, other nations will imitate it, which would be unjust. If all agree, it wouldn't be a viable solution either. I merely wish to assure you and allow you to live well. How can I expand the harem simply for that purpose?" Ultimately, the request was declined.
In the year 607 AD, Emperor Yang of Sui sent the Minister of Punishment, Yuwen Bi, to console them. In the year 611 AD, Emperor Yang of Sui married Princess Guanghua to Fusi, who petitioned to honor the princess as empress, but Emperor Yang of Sui did not agree. The following year, there was chaos in the country of Tuyuhun; Fusi was killed, and his brother Fuyun took over as leader. Fuyun sent envoys to explain what had happened before, apologized and requested to marry the princess in accordance with Tuyuhun customs. Emperor Yang of Sui agreed. From then on, Tuyuhun came to pay tribute every year and often inquired about news from the Sui Dynasty, which Emperor Yang of Sui found distasteful.
After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, Fuyun sent his son Fushun to pay tribute. At this time, the Tiele tribes invaded the border, and Emperor Yang of Sui sent General Feng Xiaoci from Dunhuang to defend, but Feng Xiaoci was defeated. The Tiele sent envoys to apologize and request surrender, so Emperor Yang of Sui sent the Yellow Gate Attendant Pei Ju to appease them, hinting that they should attack Tuyuhun to redeem themselves. The Tiele agreed and then attacked Tuyuhun, defeating them. Fuyun fled to the Xiping area after the defeat. Emperor Yang of Sui sent Prince Guan Xiong to lead troops from Jiaohe and sent Xu Gong Yuwen Shu to attack from Xiping, crushing the Tuyuhun army. Fuyun fled, and more than 100,000 Tuyuhun people surrendered, along with over 300,000 head of livestock. Yuwen Shu pursued relentlessly, and Fuyun, fearing for his life, fled to a valley. The former territory of Tuyuhun, stretching from the west of Xiping Linqiang City to the east of Qumo, from the south of Qilian Mountain to the north of Snow Mountain, spanning 4,000 miles east to west and 2,000 miles north to south, all came under the control of the Sui Dynasty. The Sui Dynasty established administrative districts and military outposts there and also relocated some minor offenders from across the empire. As a result, Emperor Yang of Sui decided to keep Fushun there instead of sending him back.
Fuyun, lacking resources, led a few thousand cavalry to join the Tanguts. Emperor Yang of Sui appointed Fushun king, sent him out of Yumen Pass, allowed him to command the remaining Tuyuhun people, and appointed King Niluo Zhou of Dabao to assist him. Upon reaching Xiping, Fushun's men killed Niluo Zhou, and Fushun ultimately did not enter and returned. In the late years of the Dali era, chaos swept across the land; Fuyun regained their original territory, repeatedly raided the Hexi region, and the Sui Dynasty's prefectures and counties were unable to withstand them.
It is said that the Tangut and Qiang people descend from the ancient Sanmiao. Among them are tribes such as Dangchang and Bailang, all of whom claim descent from monkeys. They are located east of Lintao and Xiping, west of Yehu, stretching thousands of miles north and south, living in mountain valleys. Each clan is formed by a surname; the larger tribes have more than five thousand cavalry, and the smaller ones have over a thousand cavalry. They use yak tails and some unknown kind of wool to weave their roofs. They wear fur robes and coarse cloth garments, draped in felt, considered the finest adornment. They are fierce and warlike, with no written laws, each living their own lives, only coming together in times of war. There are no taxes or labor duties, and little interaction between tribes. They make a living by herding yaks, sheep, and pigs, and do not know how to cultivate the land. Their customs are notoriously promiscuous, among the most extreme of all ethnic groups. They have no writing system and can only track the passage of time by observing plant growth. Every three years, they hold a large gathering, offering cattle and sheep in sacrifice to the heavens and earth. When someone lives past eighty and dies, they view it as a natural death, and relatives and friends do not cry; but if someone dies young, they see it as unjust and will weep together. They perform music using the pipa, transverse flutes, and drums.
During the Wei and Zhou dynasties, the Dangxiang Qiang often came to harass the border. When Gaozu was Chancellor, the Central Plains were embroiled in constant warfare, and the Dangxiang Qiang seized the opportunity to raid. Later, General Jiang Gong Liang Rui quelled Wang Qian's rebellion and requested to also attack the Dangxiang Qiang, but Gaozu did not agree. In the fourth year of the Kaihuang era, over a thousand households of the Dangxiang Qiang pledged allegiance to the Sui Dynasty. In the fifth year of Kaihuang, Tuoba Ningcong and others each led their clansmen to come to Xuzhou to submit to the court and were granted titles of Grand General, and their subordinates were likewise appointed to official positions. In the sixteenth year of Kaihuang, they launched an attack on Huizhou, and the court dispatched troops to Longxi, inflicting a crushing defeat on the Dangxiang Qiang forces. After that, they all sought to surrender, expressing their willingness to serve the Sui Dynasty, and even sent their children to the court to offer their apologies. Gaozu told them, "Go back and tell your fathers and brothers that to live, one must have a stable home, respect their elders, and care for the younger generation. You keep coming and going; don't you feel any shame?" From that point forward, the Dangxiang Qiang regularly paid tribute to the court.
Gaochang Kingdom, in simple terms, was the capital of the former King of Cheshi in the Han Dynasty, a journey of thirteen days from Dunhuang. The area measures three hundred miles from east to west and five hundred miles from north to south, surrounded by mountains of all sizes. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent troops westward, many exhausted soldiers were left behind. There were also Han Dynasty fortresses in Gaochang, which later became the name of the kingdom. Initially, the Rouran established Kan Bozhou as the King of Gaochang. After Bozhou died, his son Kan Yicheng succeeded him, but was killed by his cousin Shougui, who subsequently became King of Gaochang. Shougui was later killed by the Gaoche people. Afterward, a man from Dunhuang named Zhang Mengming ascended to the throne. Zhang Mengming was likewise killed by the Gaochang people, and then Maru ascended to the throne and appointed Gonggu and Qu Jia as his chief historians. Maru also contacted Northern Wei, wanting to submit to them. However, the people of Gaochang were deeply attached to their homes and refused to leave, so they conspired to kill Maru and installed Qu Jia as their king.
Qu Jia, whose courtesy name was Lingfeng, hailed from Yuzhong in Jincheng. After ascending to the throne, he also paid tribute to the Rouran. Later, when the Rouran leader was slain by the Gaoche, Qu Jia paid homage to the Gaoche. When Yanqi was defeated by Yidat, the Yanqi people were unable to govern themselves and requested Qu Jia to be their lord. Qu Jia sent his second son to be the king of Yanqi. From that point on, the Gaochang Kingdom gradually grew stronger, and the people increasingly respected him. After Qu Jia's death, his son Qu Jian succeeded him.
It is said that in this small country, the city walls measure 1,840 steps around. In the imperial palace, there's a painting depicting Duke Ai of Lu consulting Confucius on governance strategies, a painting in the palace showing Duke Ai asking Confucius for advice on governance. There are eighteen cities within the country, with a fascinating array of official positions. The highest-ranking official is the Prime Minister, followed by two Deputy Prime Ministers, then Left and Right Guards, eight Chief Historians, five Generals, eight Marshals, and finally officials such as Attendants, Registrars, Secretaries, and Provincial Administrators. Major decisions are, of course, made by the king, while the Crown Prince and Deputy Prime Ministers handle the minor matters, and they don't keep much written documentation.
The local people: men wear Hu clothing, and women wear skirts, and they all have their hair styled in buns. Their customs and laws are quite similar to those of the Central Plains. The land is rocky and sandy, with a warm climate that lets them harvest grain twice a year, suitable for silk production, and abundant in fruits. There’s a type of grass here called Yangci that produces honey, and it tastes particularly good. The red salt here is as vibrant as cinnabar, while the white salt is as pure as jade, and there's plenty of grape wine too. They worship heavenly gods and also practice Buddhism. Sheep and horses are raised in remote areas to keep them safe from foreign invasions, and unless you're a high-ranking official, you wouldn't know where these pastures are.
Heading north, there is Red Stone Mountain. Seventy li north of Red Stone Mountain is Tanhan Mountain, where snow can still be found in summer. North of Tanhan Mountain is the realm of Tiele. Heading northwest from Wuwei, there is a shortcut that crosses over a thousand li of desert and Gobi, desolate in every direction, making it nearly impossible to find a path. "Surrounded by vast emptiness, with no trace of a path." If you want to take this road, you can only follow the bones of those who came before. Along the way, you might even hear the sounds of wailing and lament. If you are curious and go searching, you will most likely lose your life, as it's said to be haunted by malevolent spirits. Therefore, most merchants prefer the Yiwu route. In the tenth year of Kaihuang, the Turks captured their four cities, and two thousand people sought refuge in our Great Sui. After King Jian died, his son Boya ascended to the throne. His grandmother was the daughter of the Turkic Khan. After his father died, the Turks wanted him to follow Turkic customs, but Boya adamantly refused for quite some time. Later, when the Turks pressured him too much, he ultimately had no choice but to comply. After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, he extended invitations to many neighboring countries to offer tribute. In the fourth year of Daye, he dispatched envoys to present tribute, and Emperor Yang treated these envoys with exceptional kindness.
In the second year, King Boya of Gaochang came to pay his respects to the emperor. He also participated in the campaign against Goguryeo by the Sui army, and upon his return, he married Princess Huarong of the Sui Dynasty. In the winter of the eighth year of Daye, Boya returned to Gaochang and issued a decree within the country, declaring, "The foremost duty of governing a nation is to protect the people, and the most important thing in stabilizing the country is to make it strong and complete. Historically, our country was located in a remote and desolate place, bordering the fierce Di tribes. The people did nothing wrong, yet they had to wear their clothes and keep their hairstyles. Now that the Great Sui Dynasty has unified the world, everyone has submitted. Since I am enjoying the peace and prosperity of this prosperous time, I hope everyone can enjoy this peace and prosperity, so from commoners to nobles, all should adopt new attire and hairstyles."
Emperor Yang was very pleased to hear this and issued a decree: "Commending virtue and rewarding good deeds is the hallmark of a wise ruler; demonstrating sincerity and achieving goodness is the model left by emperors of the past. Boya, the Grand Master of Splendor, Duke of Bian, King of Gaochang, is knowledgeable and broad-minded, with a deep-seated loyalty and noble character. He was originally Han Chinese, but later established a kingdom in the Western Regions. Due to wars in the past, he was forced to submit to the Turks and had to abandon Han attire and wear non-Han attire. Since our Sui Dynasty has unified the world and brought peace to the four seas, the blessings have spread in all directions. Boya has traveled a long way to the court, witnessing our nation's rituals and marveling at our grand ceremonies. Therefore, he has changed his attire from non-Han attire to Han clothing, transforming from a barbarian to a member of the Han people. This noble deed will be etched in history. He shall be rewarded with Han clothing made in the style of the court and escorted back. Let him don splendid garments and once again bask in the glory of chariots and fine attire, abandoning those crude fur clothes and becoming a member of a country wearing crowns."
However, Boya used to be subordinate to the Tiele people, and the Tiele always sent important officials to be stationed in the state of Gaochang. The merchants passing through had to pay taxes to Gaochang, which were subsequently sent to the Tiele. Although Boya ordered his people to adopt Han clothing to please the Sui Dynasty, he still feared the Tiele and did not dare to truly change. Since then, Gaochang has sent people every year to present local specialties as tribute to the Sui Dynasty.
Kangguo is the descendant of the Kangju state. They always moved around without a fixed territory, but they have existed since the Han Dynasty. Their king's surname is Wen, and he is from the Yuezhi tribe. They used to live north of the Qilian Mountains in the city of Zhaowu, but were defeated by the Xiongnu and fled to the west of the Congling Mountains, where Kangguo was established. The king's brothers each became kings of smaller states, so the surrounding countries of Kangguo adopted Zhaowu as their surname to show loyalty to their roots.
The current king, Daishibi, is known for his kindness and popularity. His wife is the daughter of the Tujue khan, Datou. Their capital is the city of Aludi on the Sabao River, where many people reside. State affairs are jointly managed by three ministers. The king sports long hair, wears a gold hat set with seven precious stones, and dresses in luxurious silk and satin clothes. His wife styles her hair in a high bun and wears a black headscarf. The men sport short hair and wear brocade robes. Even though Kangguo is regarded as a powerful nation, many countries in the Western Regions submit to it, such as Miguo, Shiguo, Caoguo, Heguo, Anguo, Xiao Anguo, Nasebo Guo, Wunahuo Guo, Muguo, and so on, all of which have pledged their allegiance to Kangguo.
They have their own laws, which are kept in the Zoroastrian temples and referred to during trials. Serious crimes result in the extinction of the entire family, while lesser offenses result in death or the amputation of a foot. The people of Kang are characterized by deep-set eyes, high noses, and stubbly beards. They are skilled in business, and people from various regions come to their country for trade. They have musical instruments such as drums, pipa, qin, konghou, and flutes. Their marriage and funeral customs are similar to those of the Turks. They have ancestral temples and hold sacrifices for their ancestors every June, with neighboring countries assisting in the rituals. The people of Kang practice Buddhism and use Hu script for their writing. The climate there is mild, suitable for growing grains, vegetables, and lush vegetation.
Kang produces horses, camels, mules, donkeys, cattle, gold, a mineral called nǎoshā, incense, asafoetida, sereser (a type of spice), deer hides, felt blankets, and satin. They also produce a large amount of grape wine, with wealthy families able to store thousands of measures and have good harvests every year. During the Daye era, Kang began sending envoys to offer local specialties as tribute, but later stopped.
Anguo is the ancient Parthian Kingdom during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Zhaowu, and he is of the same lineage as the king of Kang, with the courtesy name Shelideng. His wife is the daughter of the king of Kang. Anguo is located south of the Mi River, with a five-tiered city wall encircled by flowing water. The palaces have flat roofs. The king sits on a golden throne shaped like a camel's hump, about seven to eight feet high. During governance, he and the queen sit face to face, with three ministers seated nearby discussing national affairs. The customs of Anguo are similar to those of Kang, except that there are cases of sisters and mothers killing each other, which is quite unusual. After Sui Yangdi ascended the throne, he sent the official Du Xingman to the Western Regions, and when he arrived in Anguo, he brought back five different types of salt.
Bi Guo is located over a hundred miles west of An Guo, which has around a thousand households. This country has no monarch and is under the jurisdiction of An Guo. In the fifth year of the Daye era, Bi Guo sent envoys to pay tribute, but subsequently lost contact.
Shi Guo is situated by the Yaoshashui River, with a capital city that spans over ten miles. The king is named Nie Shi. Southeast of Shi Guo's city, there is a house containing a bed. Every year on the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month, they place the ashes of the king's parents in a golden urn on the bed, walking around the bed and sprinkling flower incense and various fruits, while the king, along with his officials, performs the ritual. After the ritual, the king and queen move to another tent, and the officials sit in order and celebrate together by eating and drinking before dispersing. Shi Guo produces rice and wheat, along with many fine horses. They have a reputation for being skilled in warfare, having once allied with the Turks, but they were later destroyed by Shibi Khan's troops, and Teqindianzhi was appointed to govern Shi Guo. Shi Guo is located six hundred miles from the Western Turks and six thousand miles from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi also sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of the Daye era, but has not sent any since.
Once there was a matriarchal kingdom to the south of the Congling Mountains, where all the rulers were female. The reigning queen was named Su Pi, with the style name Mo Jie, and she had been queen for twenty years. The queen's husband was named Jin Ju, who was entirely uninvolved in state matters. The men in the kingdom were solely responsible for warfare. The kingdom's city was established on a mountain, housing over ten thousand families. The queen lived in a nine-story palace, surrounded by hundreds of palace maids, and only held court once every five days. There was also a vice queen who assisted with state affairs. The customs in this kingdom were quite distinctive, with women holding high status, looking down on men, and they did not harbor jealousy. Both men and women adorned their faces with vibrant colors, changing colors several times a day. Everyone wore their hair loosely, wore leather shoes, and tax collection was irregular. The climate was cold, and their primary means of sustenance was hunting. They produced copper ore, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and Shu horses; notably, they produced an abundance of salt, which they frequently exported to Tianzhu for substantial profits. They frequently engaged in conflicts with Tianzhu and the Tanguts. After the queen's death, the kingdom would levy a substantial tax, then choose two exceptional women from the royal family, one to be queen and the other to be vice queen. If a noble died, the deceased's skin would be removed, mixed with gold dust, and buried in a bottle with their bones. After a year, the skin would be buried in an iron vessel. They revered the Asura deity and the tree spirit. Every year at the beginning of the year, they would offer sacrifices of humans or macaques. After the sacrifice, they would pray in the mountains, and a bird resembling a female pheasant would alight on their hands. Cutting it open, if there were grains inside, it meant a good harvest; if there were sand and stones, it meant a year of disaster; this practice was known as bird divination. In the sixth year of the Kaihuang reign, they dispatched envoys to offer tribute, but subsequently, contact was lost.
The Kingdom of Yanqi, located seventy li south of the White Mountains, was a state that existed during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname was Long, with the style name Tuqi. The capital city had a circumference of about two li. The country had nine cities and over a thousand elite soldiers. The country lacked formal laws. They practiced Buddhism, which bore some resemblance to Brahmanism. Their marriage customs were similar to those in the Central Plains. Upon death, individuals are cremated, and mourning lasts for seven days. All men cut their hair. The region was rich in fish, salt, and reeds. To the east, nine hundred li away lay Gaochang, and to the west, nine hundred li away was Kucha, both situated in the desert. Two thousand two hundred li to the southeast was Guazhou. During the Daye period, they dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Kucha, located one hundred and seventy li south of the White Mountains, was an ancient state during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname was Bai, with the style name Sunidie. The capital city was about six li in size, boasting several thousand soldiers. The customs there dictated that murderers faced the death penalty, while robbers had one arm and one leg amputated. These customs were akin to those of the Kingdom of Yanqi. The king adorned his head with a colored ribbon that hung down his back and sat upon a throne crafted from gold lions. The region boasted an abundance of rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, cinnabar, malachite, realgar, orpiment, frankincense, fine horses, and fat cattle. To the east, nine hundred li away was Yanqi, to the south, fourteen hundred li away was Yutian, to the west, fifteen hundred li away was Shule, to the northwest, over six hundred li away was the Tujue tribe, and to the southeast, three thousand one hundred li away was Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Kucha also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Shule, located over a hundred miles south of the Baishan Mountains, is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. The king's name is Amijue. The people here have six fingers on each hand and foot. Children born without six fingers do not live long. The capital has a circumference of five miles. There are twelve large cities and dozens of small cities in the country, with a military force of two thousand soldiers. The king wears a hat adorned with a golden lion. It is abundant in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and realgar, and they pay tribute to the Turks annually. To the south lies the Yellow River, to the west are the Congling Mountains, to the east, Kucha is 1,500 miles away, to the west, the Khanate is a thousand miles away, to the south, Zhujubo is eight to nine hundred miles away, to the northeast, Tujueya is over a thousand miles away, and to the southeast, Guazhou is four thousand six hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Shule also sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
In the country of Yutian, just over two hundred li north of the Congling Mountains, the king's surname is Wang, and his given name is Beishibiliang. The capital city is approximately eight to nine li in circumference. The country has five major cities, several dozen smaller cities, and only a few thousand soldiers. The common people practice Buddhism, and there are many monks and nuns, with the king often practicing vegetarianism and scripture recitation. Fifty li south of the city is a Zanmo Monastery, said to have been built by a monk named Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha said to be imprinted on the stones in the temple. Make sure to remember "Zanmo Monastery" and "Biluzhan"! Five hundred li west of the city is a Bimo Monastery, said to be where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhists. However, the locals are known for their lack of morals and ethics, with many thieves and robbers, often leading a hedonistic lifestyle. The king wears an ornate hat and a crown decorated with a golden rat, while the queen wears golden flowers. There is a strange custom that the king's hair cannot be seen by others, as it is believed that seeing his hair will bring bad luck for the year. The region produces hemp, wheat, millet, rice, various fruits, and plentiful gardens, and there are many beautiful jade stones in the mountains. To the east, it is fifteen hundred li to Shanshan, three thousand li to the country of women in the south, one thousand li to Zhujubo in the west, fourteen hundred li to Kucha in the north, and two thousand eight hundred li to Guazhou in the northeast. During the Sui Dynasty, they frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
In the country of Kang, more than five hundred li to the west of the Congling Mountains, formerly known as Qusou, the king's surname is Zhaowu, and his given name is Aliqi. The capital city is four li in circumference, with a few thousand soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from gold and shaped like a ram, and the queen wears golden flowers. The region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east, it is one thousand li to Shule, to the west lies the country of Sufengshana five hundred li away, five hundred li to the country of Shiguo in the northwest, over two thousand li to the Tujue tribe in the northeast, and five thousand five hundred li to Guazhou in the east. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer some local specialties as tribute offerings.
The Tuhuoluo Kingdom, located five hundred li west of the Congling Mountains, shares a border with the Yida Kingdom. The capital city spans only two li. However, they boast a formidable army of one hundred thousand, all of whom are well-trained. They also follow Buddhism. The customs here are quite peculiar, where several brothers share a single wife and take turns sleeping with her, hanging their clothes outside the door to indicate who is on duty. The children born belong to the eldest brother. Their mountain caves are home to divine horses, and every spring, when mares are brought into the caves, they produce excellent foals. To the south, it is one thousand seven hundred li to the Cao Kingdom, and to the east, it is five thousand eight hundred li to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Yida Kingdom, located south of the Wuhu River, about two hundred li away, descends from the Yuezhi. They have five to six thousand soldiers known for their fierce and warlike nature. In the past, the country was in turmoil, and the Turks intervened and installed a man named Jieqiang as their king. Their capital spans about ten li and is filled with many temples and pagodas adorned with gold. They also have the custom of brothers sharing a wife, where a woman with only one husband wears a single-horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases. The Yida Kingdom is one thousand five hundred li from the Cao Kingdom and six thousand five hundred li from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Miguo Kingdom, located west of the Namai River, was formerly part of the Kangju territory. They have no king, and the city is governed by a man named Zhaowu, a distant relative of the king of Kang, known by the courtesy name Bizhuo. Their capital spans just two li and has only a few hundred soldiers. Miguo is one hundred li from the Kang Kingdom, five hundred li from Suduoshana Kingdom, two hundred li from Shiguo, and six thousand four hundred li from Guazhou. During the Dazai era, they also regularly paid tribute.
Shiguo, located about ten miles south of the Du Mo River, was once part of the Kangju territory. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, with the style name Ti Zhe, and he was also a relative of the Kangju king. The capital was about two miles in circumference, with more than a thousand soldiers. Its customs and practices were similar to those of the Kangju. Shiguo was 240 miles from Kangju, 500 miles from Tuhuoluo, 200 miles from Nasebo, 200 miles from Miguo, and 6,500 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also sent envoys to present tribute.
Caoguo, located a few miles south of the Nami River, was likewise part of the Kangju territory. This country was without its own ruler, as the Kangju king appointed his son Wujian to govern it. The capital was about three miles in circumference, with more than a thousand soldiers. Caoguo had a very effective god, worshipped by nations from east of the Western Sea. This god had a golden statue, over five feet tall, proportionate and harmonious. Every day, five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were sacrificed to it, and the leftovers were too much for over a thousand people to eat. Caoguo was 100 miles from Kangju, 150 miles from Heguo, and 6,600 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also sent envoys to present tribute.
Heguo, also located a few miles south of the Nami River, was likewise part of the Kangju territory. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, also a relative of the Kangju king, with the style name Dun. The capital was about two miles in circumference, with a thousand soldiers. Their king even sat on a throne crafted from golden sheep. Heguo was 150 miles from Caoguo, 300 miles from Xiaoanguo, and 6,750 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also sent envoys to present tribute.
Wunahuo, with its capital located on the west side of the Wuhu River, used to be the territory of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's family name is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, whose given name is Foshi. The capital city stretches two li along its walls. It boasts only a few hundred elite soldiers. The king sits on a golden sheep throne, which is quite impressive! Four hundred li to the northeast lies Anguo, over two hundred li to the northwest lies Mugu, and seven thousand five hundred li to the east is our Guazhou. During the Daye period, they even sent envoys to offer tribute.
Mugu, whose capital also lies on the west side of the Wuhu River, is also the old territory of the Anxi Kingdom, neighboring Wunahuo. The king's family name is also Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, whose given name is Alanmi. The capital city stretches three li along its walls, boasting two thousand elite soldiers. Five hundred li northeast of Mugu is Anguo, over two hundred li to the east is Wunahuo, over four thousand li to the west lies Persia, and seven thousand seven hundred li to the east is Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
As for Persia, it is located west of the Dudahe River, in the area of Sulincity, which is the ancient Tiaozhi. Their king is called Kusahe. The capital city spans about ten li in diameter. They boast over twenty thousand formidable soldiers, riding elephants into battle. This country has no death penalty; the maximum punishment for crimes is amputation of hands or feet, confiscation of property, shaving of beards, or wearing a sign around the neck to distinguish treatment. Everyone over the age of three must pay four wen in taxes each year. They also practice marrying their own sisters. When someone dies, the deceased are placed on a mountain, and the family must mourn for a month. The king wears a golden flower crown, sits on a throne made of golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, wears brocade robes adorned with jade pendants.
In their land, they produce good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, as well as large bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a type of gem), beast soul (a type of gem), coral, glassware, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gem), huluoji (a type of gem), luteng (a type of gem), huoqi (a type of gem), diamonds, gold, silver, jinyu stone (a type of ore), copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, woolen blankets, woolen blankets, huna (a type of fabric), yuenobu (a type of fabric), sandalwood, gold-threaded fabric, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, storax, and agarwood, pepper, bibo (a type of spice), honey, semihoney (a type of honey), thousand-year date, aconite (a medicinal herb), helile (a type of fruit), wushizi (a type of fruit), green vitriol (a type of pigment), and orpiment (a type of pigment). The Turks were unable to defeat them and could only exert nominal control. Persia frequently sent envoys to offer tribute. Several hundred miles to the west of Persia is the sea, to the east over four thousand miles is the Mu country, to the northwest over four thousand five hundred miles is Fulin (the Byzantine Empire), and to the east over eleven thousand seven hundred miles to Guazhou. Emperor Yang of Sui sent Yunqiwei Li Yu to establish friendly relations with Persia, and later sent envoys with Li Yu to offer some local products as tribute. Cao country, north of the Congling Mountains, was called Jibin country during the Han Dynasty. The king of this country, Zhaowu, whose courtesy name was Shunda, was a member of the royal family of Kangju. The capital city spanned four li. The country boasted over ten thousand skilled soldiers. The country's laws were very strict, with death as the punishment for murder or theft. The locals engaged in superstitious rituals.
On the hill of Congling, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of the God of Heaven. The ceremony is very extravagant, with its roof and walls crafted from gold, silver, and bronze, and silver spread across the ground. Over a thousand people come to worship every day. In front of the temple, there is a fish vertebra, with a hollow center wide enough for horses to pass through.
The king is adorned with a golden crown shaped like a fish, seated on a throne fashioned from golden horses. The region is rich in rice, millet, beans, and wheat, along with numerous elephants, horses, wild oxen, gold, silver, wrought iron, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, sandalwood, and various spices, including rock honey, half honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
To the north of Caoguo lies seven hundred li, to the east, Jueguo is six hundred li away, and to the northeast, Guazhou is six thousand six hundred li distant. During the Sui Dynasty, Caoguo sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
Once, there was a country called Fuguo, located over two thousand li to the northwest of Shu County, which was the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There was a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fuguo, who governed themselves and had customs similar to those of Fuguo, except for a slightly different language that was not unified. They did not have any surnames. The king of Fuguo was named Yi Zeng. Their country was eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li wide from southeast to northwest, without city walls, living near valleys and relying on mountains and cliffs. The people here had a strong sense of revenge, so they built "stone nests" made of stacked stones to hide from enemies. These "stone nests" ranged from over ten zhang high to as short as five or six zhang, each layer was over a zhang high and separated by wooden floors. The base was only three or four steps in diameter, and the top of the "stone nest" was two or three steps wide, resembling a pagoda. There was a small door on the lower level, and it had to be closed at night to keep out thieves. There were more than twenty thousand households in the whole country, all subject to the king. The Jialiang Yi tribe followed their chieftain, and those who committed serious crimes faced execution, while those with minor offenses were fined a cow. They were all quick and skilled with swords. They wore lacquered leather armor, with bows six feet long and bowstrings made of bamboo. They took multiple wives and married their sisters-in-law, and if a son or younger brother died, their father or brother would marry their wives. They enjoyed singing and dancing, using drums and reed instruments, as well as playing the flute. When someone died, they did not wear special mourning clothes. The body was laid on a high bed, cleaned, dressed, covered with lacquered armor, and then with animal skins. Descendants did not cry, but instead danced with swords in armor, shouting, "My father was taken away by ghosts, and I will avenge him!" Other relatives would cry three times and then stop. Women had to cover their faces when crying. The deceased's family would slaughter a cow, while relatives and friends would bring pigs and wine, and everyone would eat and drink together before burying the deceased. After ten years, a grand funeral would be held, inviting relatives and friends, sacrificing horses, and slaughtering dozens. They also worshipped the ancestors' spirits. They wore round leather hats that resembled basins, and some of them also wore face masks. Most of their clothes were made of fur and leather, and their shoes were boots made from whole cow hides. They wore iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their hands. The king and chieftain adorned themselves with gold jewelry, including a gold flower three inches in diameter hanging on their chests. The area was elevated, featuring a cool climate, strong winds, and little rainfall. The land was well-suited for cultivating wheat and barley. Gold and silver could be found in the mountains, and many white pheasants inhabited the area. The river was home to a type of desirable fish that grew up to four feet long, with very fine scales.
In 608 AD, the king sent eight envoys to the court to pay tribute. The following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe to present their tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but because the road was too dangerous, they were unable to traverse it, so they requested to open a mountain road for future tribute. Emperor Yang of Sui found this too troublesome and declined the request. The Jialiang Yi tribe had a river about sixty to seventy zhang wide, while the Fuguo tribe had a river over a hundred zhang wide, both flowing southward, and they used animal skins to make boats to cross the rivers. To the south of Fuguo lay a tribe known as Baoyuan Yi, whose customs were quite similar. To the west of Fuguo was a matriarchal society. To the northeast of Fuguo were continuous mountains stretching for thousands of miles, all the way to the Dangxiang region. In the mountains, various Qiang tribes resided: Dazuofeng, Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Dahua, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nao, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao; these tribes all lived in deep mountains and forests, lacking a prominent leader. Their customs were similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some were governed by the Tuyuhun, while others were affiliated with Fuguo. During Emperor Yang of Sui's reign, these tribes all came to the court to pay tribute. Several administrative prefectures were established along the southwestern border to oversee these tribes.
The history books say: from ancient times to the present, to open up remote areas and forge ties with the border regions, it requires wise and generous emperors, as well as ministers willing to dedicate everything for the nation. Zhang Qian had previously opened up the road to the Western Regions, and Ban Chao later also joined the military, making significant contributions to the nation. They either used treasures to befriend foreign tribes or used force to intimidate enemies, willingly risking their lives for short-term gains. All of this is because the emperor values connections with the border regions, and the ministers are willing to sacrifice for the country. Therefore, it is said that what the emperor likes, those beneath them will be more eager to follow suit.
Emperor Yang of Sui liked extravagance and waste, his extravagance even exceeding that of the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju submitted the "Records of the Western Regions" to cater to his preferences, so Emperor Yang of Sui personally went to Yumen Pass and established Yiwu, Qumo, and other places. The entire Guanzhong region was in turmoil, extending all the way to the shifting sands, and the people suffered greatly. If the nomadic tribes in the north posed no threat and good news arrived from the eastern tribes, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely strengthen the garrisons at Luntai, build fortresses at Wulei, and try to obtain the treasures of the Great Qin and the exotic birds of the Tiaozhi; then how could the costs and labor of transportation be sustained?
In ancient times, wise rulers controlled territories within a radius of five thousand li, dedicating their efforts to stabilizing the Central Plains while neglecting those remote and desolate areas. Is it because their prestige and virtue are not enough? No! They simply wished to prevent the burdens of remote areas from impacting the Central Plains, nor did they want useless matters to harm useful matters. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops in the Wuling Mountains, the Han Dynasty used troops on the three borders, resulting in either fields strewn with corpses or a significant population decline. The Sui Dynasty, despite its strength, also ended up in a sorry state in the Qinghai region. All of this is because the emperor lost his direction, which ultimately caused the suffering of the populace.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could give serious thought to the significance of "pacifying the border," refuse the general's request, return the horse that travels a thousand miles, and not ask for tribute from the White Wolf, then even without a victory in Liaodong, how could the tragic events in Jiangdu have occurred?
