During the Tang and Yu periods, heavenly offerings were called "Tian Li," earthly offerings were called "Di Li," and ancestral offerings were called "Ren Li." The "Book of Documents" states that Emperor Ku ordered the Duke of Zhou to manage these three types of rituals, which served to harmonize heaven and earth, coordinate yin and yang, discern the subtle and profound matters, communicate with the myriad deities, and regulate all things.
The Yin Dynasty inherited the ritual system of the Xia Dynasty, making some adjustments and widely disseminating education to guide the populace. King Zhou of Shang was a tyrant who neglected laws and institutions. The Duke of Zhou quelled rebellions, promoted culture, employed auspicious rites to honor the deities, used mourning rites to grieve for the state, treated guests with hospitality rites, punished treacherous and disrespectful individuals with military rites, and established marriages with celebratory rites; these are known as the Five Rites. Therefore, it is said: "There are three hundred norms of propriety and three thousand types of ceremonies; there is no reason to enter a house without using the door." Kings Cheng and Kang followed these rites, thus rarely resorting to punishment.
After the Dog Rong killed King You of Zhou, the Zhou Dynasty weakened, the rituals and music fell into disarray, and customs declined. Confucius sighed during a wax sacrificial ceremony, saying, "I wish to do the same! Yu, Tang, King Wen, King Wu, King Cheng, and the Duke of Zhou all treated rituals with caution." He then reorganized the rituals and music, hoping to rectify the issues of his time, but the rulers ignored him, and his proposals could not be implemented. Thus, the destruction of the state, the decline of families, and the death of individuals must first come from the neglect of rituals.
Duke Zhao married the daughter of Mencius but concealed her surname, and Lord Yang's infidelity caused harm, suggesting that marriage rituals had become lax, leading to an increase in illicit acts. People drank together recklessly, unaware of moderation; the rural drinking customs became lax, resulting in more disputes. Duke Lu violated the rituals of worshiping the Five Temples, and Emperor Wu of Han abolished the three-year mourning system, resulting in a laxity of mourning rituals, which weakened familial bonds. The lords failed to bow to the Son of Heaven, and the Five Hegemons summoned the lords at He Yang, which led to the laxity of court invitation customs and the beginning of mutual invasions.
The Qin Dynasty, capitalizing on military strength, annexed the six states, assimilated the rituals of the six states, and moved them to Xianyang. It only adopted the practice of venerating the monarch while subjugating the subjects as a practical tool of the time. As a result, humility and respect were reflected in one's manner of walking, while loyalty and filial piety manifested in one's actions and demeanor, and superfluous formalities and trivialities were cast aside. Even things like grass dogs used for sacrifices were thrown aside by the roadside, much like the itinerant scholar Zhang Fu, who roamed the states; Confucianism waned, and the "Book of Songs" and "Book of Rites" faded into obscurity.
Emperor Gaozu of Han quelled the rebellion against the Qin Dynasty and had recently executed Xiang Yu, rewarding his meritorious officials, but had not yet had the time to establish court rituals. The ministers drank and vied for credit, with some drawing swords and striking the pillars, which greatly troubled the emperor. As Shusun Tong wisely remarked, "Confucian scholars may find it difficult to fight for the world with them, but they can guard the country with them." Thus, he requested the establishment of court rituals, and the emperor agreed, saying, "As long as I can do it, I will do it." After gaining a basic understanding of rituals, everyone understood to follow the rules. If one were to follow in the footsteps of King Wen and King Wu and adhere to Confucius's teachings, there simply wasn't enough time, and the emperor feared he might fall behind.
Emperor Wu of Han spearheaded the establishment of laws and institutions but favored occult practices, resulting in chaos even in the worship of deities. During the restoration of Emperor Guangwu of Han and the ascension of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, rituals at the Ming Hall, wearing crowns, and ascending the Ling Terrace to observe the clouds and phenomena all adhered to the systems of the time, which delighted the common folk. However, the court's laws and institutions have deep historical roots, sometimes benefiting from times of peace while at other times being destroyed by warfare. Moreover, as time passed, customs evolved, inevitably altering the original meanings of rituals; the rituals of the Yin and Shang dynasties were different, and the Qin and Han dynasties also made changes.
Ultimately, the evolution of rituals reflects broader societal changes over time.
To have glorious customs and widely establish preventive measures, how can one achieve this without the solemnity of rituals? For example, Mount Song and Mount Tai are the abodes of the mountain gods, and the vast sea is the home of the sea god; decorating them with mere dust wouldn’t do any harm. The "Rites of Scholars" passed down by Gao Tang is also called the "Ceremonial Rites," which fosters human relationships and refines conduct. After arriving in the Western Capital, people made judgments based on it and praised it as the model of the time, with its own established protocols. During the Huangchu era, court ceremonies were carefully codified, and during the Taishi period, mistakes were rectified; all of this is meticulously documented in the "Book of Song."
Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty commissioned a group of Confucian scholars to compile a comprehensive text to standardize a variety of rituals. Ming Shan Bin was responsible for auspicious rites, Yan Zhi Zhi for inauspicious rites, Lu Lian for military rites, He Mao for guest rites, and Sima Jiong for commendatory rites. The emperor also involved Shen Yue, Zhou She, Xu Mian, He Tong, and others in the revision. After Chen Wu subdued Jianye, many rituals continued to follow the old system of the Liang Dynasty, and he also ordered Jiang Dezao, the Left Assistant Minister of Personnel, Shen Zhu, the Outer Cavalry Regular Attendant, Shen Wen'a, the Doctor, Liu Shizhi, the Chamberlain, and others to modify, add, or remove as necessary based on actual circumstances. The Left Minister of the Later Qi Dynasty, Yang Xiu Zhi, the Minister of Revenue, Yuan Xiu Bo, the Minister of Ceremonies, Wang Xi, the Doctor of the National University, Xiong An Sheng, as well as Su Chuo, Hu Bian, and Yu Wen Bi from the Zhou Dynasty, were all experts in ceremonial rites and contributed to shaping national laws and systems to address contemporary needs. Emperor Gaozu also had Niu Hong, Xin Yan Zhi, and others refer to the "Ceremonial Notes" of the Liang Dynasty and Northern Qi to compile the Five Rites of Ceremony.
The Book of Rites states: "All things originate from heaven, and humans come from their ancestors, so sacrifices should be made to heaven." During the Qin Dynasty, the burning of books and burying of scholars reduced the Six Classics to ashes, and the rituals for sacrificing to heaven became fragmented, leaving Confucian scholars to develop sacrificial ceremonies according to their interpretations. One view is that sacrifices to heaven occur nine times a year, while sacrifices to the earth occur twice a year, with sacrifices at the Round Mound and Square Marsh held once every three years. If it is a year of the Round Mound and Square Marsh sacrifices, there will be nine sacrifices to heaven and two to the earth; if it is a year without the Round Mound sacrifice, there will only be eight sacrifices to heaven; if it is a year without the Square Marsh sacrifice, there will only be one sacrifice to the earth. This is the view of the Zheng Xuan school.
Another view is that there is only the Supreme Heaven and no alleged Five Directions and Five Emperors. Sacrifices are made only twice a year at one location. The Round Mound sacrifice is the same as the southern suburb sacrifice, and the southern suburb sacrifice is the Round Mound sacrifice. On the winter solstice, sacrifices are made to heaven at the Round Mound, and again in spring, praying for a bountiful harvest, which counts as the two sacrifices to heaven, with no additional ceremonies. The Five Times Welcoming Qi pertains to sacrifices made to the deities of the Five Elements, such as Taihao, and does not refer to sacrifices to heaven. Heaven can be referred to as the Sovereign Heaven, as God, or simply as the Emperor. The deities of the Five Elements can also be referred to as God, but cannot be called heaven. Therefore, the Five Times Welcoming Qi and the civil and martial sacrificial ceremonies at the Ming Hall are dedicated to the deities of the Five Elements, not to heaven. This is the view of the Wang Chong school. From the Liang Dynasty, through the Chen Dynasty, to the Sui Dynasty, everyone held their own opinions, following the school of thought they had learned, resulting in differences in the rituals of suburban and Round Mound sacrifices.
To the south of the Liang Kingdom, there is a circular altar called the Nanjiao. This altar is 27 feet high, with a diameter of 11 zhang at the top and 18 zhang at the bottom. It has two circles of fences and four gates. The Nanjiao and Beijiao take turns holding sacrificial ceremonies. Every year on the day of the first month, a specially chosen bull is sacrificed at the Nanjiao to the Heavenly Emperor and also to the late Emperor Wen, the founding monarch. The sacrificial currency is crafted from jade. The deities worshipped include the Five Lords of the Directions, the Five Officials, Taiyi, Tianyi, the Sun, Moon, and Stars (Sun, Moon, Five Stars, Twenty-Eight Mansions), Taiwei, Xuanyuan, Wenchang, Beidou, San Tai, the Elder Star, Fengbo, Sikong, and the Rain Master. Among these, the altars for the Twenty-Eight Mansions and the Rain Master feature pits, as do the altars for the Five Emperors, while the others are flat. The sacrificial vessels are made of pottery and gourds, and the mats are woven from grass stems. The Chief Historian sets up a fire altar at the Bing position. The emperor is required to fast in the Hall of Longevity, then ride the jade chariot, accompanied by a grand procession to conduct the sacrifice. After the ceremony, the emperor changes into the Tongtian crown and returns to the palace.
The Beijiao altar is square and located in the northern part of the Liang Kingdom. The top sides measure 10 zhang, while the bottom sides measure 12 zhang, with a height of 1 zhang. There are steps on all four sides, and it also has two circles of fences. The Beijiao and Nanjiao also take turns holding sacrificial ceremonies. Every year on the first month, on the same selected day, a specially chosen bull is sacrificed at Beijiao to the God of the Earth and also to the worthy Empress. The sacrificial currency is made of yellow jade. The deities worshipped include the Five Officials, the God of Agriculture, the Five Mountains (East Mountain Taishan, South Mountain Hengshan, West Mountain Huashan, North Mountain Hengshan, Central Mountain Songshan), Yishan, Yueshan, Baishishan, Huoshan, Wulu Mountain, Jiangshan, the Four Seas, the Four Rivers, Songjiang, Kuaiji River, Qiantang River, and the Four Distances. The Chief Historian sets up a pit at the Ren position.
In the third year of the Tianjian era, Wu Cao proposed, "The Book of Shangshu states that 'when all things revive, sacrificial rites should be held in the suburbs.' The sacrificial rites in the suburbs should be held after the beginning of spring." He Tong refuted, saying, "The current sacrificial rites in the suburbs are to give thanks for last year's harvest and pray for a good harvest in the coming year, so they are held on the first day of the year; they don't have to be after the beginning of spring. The winter sacrifice at the Round Mound Altar is to express gratitude for Heaven's blessings; the summer sacrifice at the summer solstice is to pray for agricultural abundance, hence the saying 'when all things revive.' Since the second year of the Jin Taishi era, the sacrifices at the Round Mound and the Square Altar have been combined into two sacrificial rites in the suburbs. Therefore, the current sacrificial rites express both gratitude to Heaven and prayers for a bountiful harvest, and cannot be limited to just one interpretation." The emperor said, "The sacrifice to Heaven at the Round Mound and the prayer for grain at the First Farmer Altar are both held at times when the yang energy is strong, so they are conducted outdoors. During the winter solstice night, the yang energy starts from the Jiazi, and since we are to sacrifice to the Supreme Heaven, it should take place on the winter solstice. The timing for praying for grain can adhere to ancient traditions and must be at the time when all things revive. On one suburban altar, the sacrifices will be conducted in two parts." From then on, the winter solstice sacrifice came to be known as the sacrifice to Heaven, and the sacrifice held when all things revive became known as the prayer for grain.
He Tongzhi proposed again: "According to records, six vessels filled with sacrificial drink should be used, covered with decorated drapes, and placed in ancestral temples. Now the regulations for the offerings in the southern and northern suburbs are too complicated and should be simplified." Doctor Mingshan Bin believed: "The 'Record of Rites' states that 'the Son of Heaven personally plows the fields, using millet and sacrificial drink to worship the gods'; this refers to the sacrificial rites performed at the Mingtang, and the suburban sacrifices should not be like this." The emperor accepted his opinion. Some officials believed that after the sacrifice, the vessels and mats should be returned to the warehouse and disposed of by burial according to traditional practices. He Tongzhi and others believed: "The 'Book of Rites' states that 'if the sacrificial vessels are damaged, they should be buried.' Burying them after just one use is wasteful and inconsistent with traditional practices." The emperor said: "The sacrificial offerings and lightweight vessels, like pottery and gourds, are easily soiled after being returned to the warehouse. Only the damaged ones should be buried, which refers specifically to the vessels used for seasonal sacrifices." From then on, the relevant departments were tasked with deciding whether to bury them.
Four years later, He Tong said, "In the 'Book of Rites,' it says 'Heaven is called Shen, Earth is called Qi.' Nowadays, instead of calling Heaven Shen and Earth Qi, the title of the Temple of Heaven should be 'Altar of the Imperial Heaven,' and the title of the Temple of Earth should be 'Altar of the Rear Earth.' In addition, the Southern Suburbs and the Hall of Light should use sandalwood incense, which aligns with the nature of Yang Qi. The Northern Suburbs should use mixed incense, because the Earth is close to people, so there should be more mixed fragrances." The emperor accepted his suggestions without hesitation. Five years later, Ming Shanbin said, "I have reviewed the previous decrees. During the Zhou Dynasty, sacrifices to Heaven were held in the month of Zi for sacrifices to Heaven and the month of Wu for sacrifices to Earth; during the Yin Dynasty, sacrifices to Heaven were held in the month of Chou and sacrifices to Earth in the month of Liu; during the Xia Dynasty, sacrifices to Heaven were held in the month of Yin and sacrifices to Earth in the month of Qi. In recent years, the Southern and Northern Suburbs have been adhering to the calendar of the Xia Dynasty." The emperor ordered a detailed discussion. Ming Shanbin believed that Heaven and Earth are equally important, and all three dynasties started their sacrifices from the first month, so it would be more fitting to conduct the sacrifices for both the Southern and Northern Suburbs on the same day. He also suggested welcoming the Five Emperors during the suburban sacrificial rites, all of whom should share in the worship of the ancestors. When receiving blessings at the suburban temples, only the emperor should bow again, to show the grace of Heaven, and the subjects should not bow together. The emperor accepted his suggestions. Six years later, some people thought that the Northern Suburbs had become too complicated, as they had both the sacrifices of Yue Zhenhai and the Four Views. Yicao Lang Zhu Yi believed, "'Wang' is a general term and should not be confined to constellations or geographical features." Ming Shanbin said, "In the 'Shun Canon,' it says 'Inspecting mountains and rivers,' and the 'Spring and Autumn Annals' say 'The Jiang, Han, Ju, and Zhang rivers are within the boundaries of the Chu state.' Now, with both the Yue Zhenhai and Four Views in the Northern Suburbs, I think it is too complicated and should be simplified." Xu Mian said, "Yue Zhenhai is the center of mountains and rivers. As for the significance of 'Wang' in sacrifices, it is not limited to just Yue Zhenhai. If we remove the Four Views, it would not be in accordance with the rites." This matter was debated for a long time without reaching a conclusion. It was not until the sixteenth year, during the sacrifices at the Northern Suburbs, that the emperor discussed this matter again. Consequently, the Eight Altars proposed the removal of the Four Views, Songjiang, Zhejiang, and the Five Lakes, along with other sacrificial sites. Zhongshan and Baishi were retained due to their cultural and historical importance.
After seven years, the emperor believed that offering sacrifices only once seemed simple, while offering three times seemed overly elaborate. This was not in accordance with the principles of sacrificing to heaven and earth. He therefore ordered a detailed discussion. Scholars Lu Wei, Ming Shanbin, and the official Sima Jiong believed, "Offering sacrifices three times at ancestral temples accommodates the officials, but for the rituals of sacrificing to heaven and earth, which are primarily for the emperor, it should be simplified; once is enough." From then on, sacrifices to heaven and earth were only offered once, removing the offerings by the Grand Commandant and the Palace Attendant. Wang Sengchong, the Assistant Minister of Ceremonies, said: "The Five Sacrifices at the Northern Suburbs; the Circular Mound should no longer host the Five Sacrifices." The emperor said: "The energies of the five elements are present in heaven and earth, so they should all be established." Wang Sengchong added: "The Wind Master and Rain Master are the Jisi and Bi stars. Currently, the Southern Suburbs sacrifice to the Jisi and Bi stars, as well as the Wind Master and Rain Master, which might violate the ritual regulations." The emperor said: "Jisi and Bi are the names of the twenty-eight lunar mansions, and the Wind Master and Rain Master are the deities of the Jisi and Bi stars. There is nothing inappropriate about sacrificing to both deities."
In the eleventh year, Taizhu presented a report that there was only one sea god sacrificial altar in the northern suburbs, and both the northern and southern suburbs used seven stands to hold sacrificial offerings, with plain altars for placing jade artifacts. It was also stipulated that the sacrificial positions for the deities beneath the altars in the northern and southern suburbs should use white cattail, and the emperor ordered a discussion. The eight officials submitted a petition, stating: "The 'Book of Rites' says, 'Among all things in the world, nothing can compare to the virtue of the heavens,' hence it is known that the stands used for the suburban sacrifices should not be seven. Using white cattail as the mat for the sacrifices has no basis in ritual. Since the sacrificial position for the Supreme Emperor of Heaven uses a stand, it is clear that suburban sacrifices should also use stands." Thus, they changed to plain stands and set up four sea god sacrificial positions in the northern suburbs. For sacrifices below the Five Emperors, they used rush mats and hay for offerings, and also used plain stands. The emperor further stated: "The 'Book of Rites' says, 'The moon is sacrificed at the pit,' because the moon belongs to Yin. Now the Five Emperors are celestial deities, yet they are placed in the pit position. It also states, 'The sun is sacrificed at the altar, the moon at the pit,' which is a separate sacrifice and unrelated to suburban sacrifices, so the altars and pits can be set up according to Yin and Yang. The southern suburban sacrifice aligns with Yang energy, while the northern suburban sacrifice aligns with Yin energy. Since it is said to align with Yang energy, it is different from Yin energy. Star and moon sacrifices, logically, should not be in the pit position." The eight officials petitioned, saying: "The Five Emperors should not be placed in the pit position. Because during the Qi state, the round mound was small and elevated, with no space for placing divine altars around it. Now the round mound is large, and it is easy to place divine positions. Please place the sacrificial positions for the Five Emperors on the altar, and do not place the external twenty-eight constellations and rain deities, etc., in the pit position." From then on, there were no pit altars for either the southern or northern suburban sacrifices.
In the seventeenth year, the emperor believed that Wei Yang and Po Bao were both heavenly deities; they were noble on the altar and humble below. Moreover, in the southern suburban sacrifice to the Heavenly Sovereign, the Five Emperors had their own sacrifices in the Ming Hall, so there was no need to set them up again. The suburban sacrifices had twenty-eight constellations but no twelve terrestrial branches, which was inconsistent with the rituals. Thus, the southern suburbs canceled the sacrifices for the Five Emperors and added sacrificial positions for the twelve terrestrial branches, which were distinct from the twenty-eight constellations. The Chen dynasty's sacrifices were also held every other year. On the first day of the first month, a specially selected bull must be used for the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth in the northern and southern suburbs.
In the first year of the Yongding era, after Emperor Wu seized the throne and proclaimed himself emperor, he built the altar for the southern sacrifice. The circular altar stood 22.5 feet tall with a diameter of 100 feet, where offerings of firewood and incense were presented to the heavens. In the second year, on the first day of the first month, a southern sacrifice was held, honoring the late Emperor De, while also removing the twelve zodiac altars and adding altars dedicated to the Five Emperors, while the sacrificial rites were conducted according to the old customs of the Liang Dynasty. A northern altar was also constructed, standing 15 feet high and with a diameter of 80 feet, to honor the late Empress Zhao, with the sacrificial rites conducted according to the old customs of the Liang Dynasty.
During Emperor Wen's Tianjia period, the southern sacrifice was changed to honor the founding emperor, while the northern sacrifice was changed to honor Emperor De. Xu Xiang, the Grand Minister, Director of the Great Writings, and Acting Minister of Rites, reported: "Previously, Emperor Wu of Liang stated: 'There are five in heaven and five on earth; the five elements exist in both realms.' Therefore, the sacrifices at both the southern and northern altars should honor the five deities. I consulted the 'Rites of Zhou,' which states: 'Use blood to sacrifice to the state and the five deities.' Zheng Xuan explained: 'Yin sacrifices begin with the use of blood, as blood possesses nobility and odor. The five deities preside over the five elements and are associated with the earth, thus they are akin to burial sacrifices and belong to yin sacrifices. Since they do not use firewood and incense, they are not classified as yang sacrifices.' Hence, He Xiu said: 'The ranks of the Zhou Dynasty consist of five levels, reflecting the five elements found on earth.' The positions of the five deities are designated in the northern altar, so the circular mound altar should not be established again." The emperor decreed, "This is permissible."
Xu Xiang further submitted: "Emperor Wu of Liang believes that Ji and Bi are the names of stars in the twenty-eight lunar mansions, and the Wind Master and Rain Master are the deities of the Ji and Bi stars, not referring to specific star constellations. Therefore, both the sacrifices at the suburban altars and the rain sacrifices honor these two pairs of deities. I consulted the records regarding the duties of the Grand Sacrificial Minister in the 'Rites of Zhou': 'Use firewood and incense to sacrifice to the Master of the Sacrifices, the Commander, the Wind Master, and the Rain Master.' Zheng Zhong explained: 'The Wind Master is the Ji star; the Rain Master is the Bi star.' The 'Book of Songs' states: 'When the moon reaches the Bi star, it causes heavy rainfall.' In this light, the Wind Lord and Rain Master are indeed the Ji and Bi constellations. Now, at the southern suburban sacrifice, we are honoring the Ji and Bi stars while also honoring the Wind Lord and Rain Master, which likely contradicts the established sacrificial regulations." The emperor ordered: "If the suburban sacrifice has set up altars for the stars, they should all be removed."
Xu Xiang further submitted: "The 'Annotations on the Rites of the Liang Dynasty' states: 'One offering is a simple sacrifice, while three offerings are a grand sacrifice. For the sacrifice to the Heavenly Emperor, there is no need for three offerings.' I consulted the records regarding the sacrificial vessels in the 'Rites of Zhou'; the three-offering ceremony is used for ancestral temples, while Zheng Xuan's commentary states: 'The one-offering ceremony is used for general sacrifices.' Now, using the ritual of a small sacrifice to honor the Heavenly Emperor is inappropriate according to Emperor Wu of Liang's statement. Moreover, the altar vessels must meet either simple or grand specifications, and the essence of the sacrificial ritual lies in sincere respect. I now request that all suburban sacrifices be conducted according to the rituals of ancestral temples, and the three-offering ceremony is suitable." The emperor ordered: "Proceed according to the submitted proposal."
During the reign of Emperor Guangda, the empress was also celebrated at the northern suburb. When Emperor Xuan ascended the throne, he felt that the southern and northern suburbs' scale was too small and discussed the need for expansion, but a decision was not reached for a long time.
In the eleventh year of Taijian (AD 79), the Minister of Rites, Wang Yuan Gui, made a suggestion, stating:
On the table laid the "Yellow Diagram" from the Han Dynasty, recording: the Altar of Heaven has a diameter of five zhang and a height of nine chi; the Altar of Earth has a diameter of five zhang and a height of six chi. The Southern Suburb Altar of the Liang Dynasty has a diameter of eleven zhang on top, eighteen zhang at the bottom, and a height of two zhang seven chi; the Northern Suburb Altar has a diameter of ten zhang on top, twelve zhang at the bottom, and a height of one zhang. The current Southern Suburb Altar is ten zhang wide and two zhang two chi five cun high; the Northern Suburb Altar is nine zhang three chi wide and one zhang five cun high. Now we propose: increase the diameter on top of the Southern Suburb Altar to twelve zhang, which is in accordance with heavenly numbers; keep the bottom diameter at eighteen zhang, in line with the "three parts to one" ratio; the height remains at two zhang seven chi, three times the height of a nine chi platform. The top diameter of the Northern Suburb Altar remains at ten zhang, in accordance with geographical significance; increase the bottom diameter to fifteen zhang, also following the "two parts added to one" ratio; the height is one zhang two chi, twice the height of the Han Dynasty. The "Book of Rites" mentions: "When constructing a tall altar for sacrifices, one must utilize hills; when constructing a low altar, one must utilize rivers and marshes. By utilizing famous mountains, sacrifices help bridge heaven and earth; by utilizing auspicious land, sacrifices can be offered outside the suburbs." The "Zhouli" states: "On the winter solstice, sacrifices to heaven are made on a circular earthen mound on flat ground; on the summer solstice, sacrifices to the earth are made on a square earthen mound in marshy land." The "Rites of Sacrifice" states: "Burn firewood for sacrifices to heaven on a tall altar; bury offerings for sacrifices to the earth on a low altar." The "Book of Rites" also says: "For the most solemn sacrifices, there is no need for an altar, simply clean the ground and make offerings." This is done to repay the blessings bestowed by heaven and earth.
"The Erya also states: 'Qiu refers to naturally formed earthen mounds, not artificially constructed.' Ancient circular and square earthen mounds were used for ritual sacrifices. There were originally no specified dimensions for height and width. As dynasties changed and capitals were relocated, the rituals for ritual sacrifices to the heavens also changed. Sometimes, even if an auspicious location was found, there might not be an existing earthen mound; other times, although there might be an existing earthen mound, it might not be clean and tidy. This is why the practice of constructing sacrificial altars and setting standards for measurements emerged. I believe that ritual sacrifices to the heavens are a significant matter, and the specific heights and widths of circular and square earthen mounds are not explicitly defined in the texts, and they varied between the times of the Five Emperors and the Three Kings. Now, I have detailed the differences between the Han Dynasty, the Liang Dynasty, and our current three generations of altars, as well as the suggested modifications to the dimensions, as mentioned earlier. Please make a wise decision, Your Majesty.
The Minister of the Left, Chen Shan, the Minister of the Left Household, Chen Yuanrao, the Deputy Minister, Chen Zhouque, the Attendant, Chen Xiaochun, and the Officer of Ceremonies, Chen Shenkeqing, all agreed with the proposed changes.
The Emperor approved our suggestions. However, when the Emperor passed away and his successor did not pay much attention to these rituals, coupled with the decline of Confucianism, by the time the dynasty fell, the specifications for these altars remained unaltered.
During the Later Qi Dynasty, it was stipulated that sacrifices at circular mounds and square ponds were to be held once every three years, known as the Imperial Sacrifice. The circular mound was located in the southern suburbs of the capital. The bottom diameter of the mound was 270 feet, while the top diameter measured 46 feet, and the height was 45 feet. It was divided into three layers, each 15 feet high, with one step on each of the top two layers and eight steps on the bottom layer. There were three concentric walls surrounding it, with a distance of 50 paces from the mound. The middle wall was located 25 paces from the inner wall, and the outer wall was 25 paces from the middle wall. Each wall had eight gates. Outside the outer wall, a large camp was built with a diameter of 370 paces. The camp's moat was 12 feet wide and 10 feet deep, with a gate on each of the four sides. Additionally, outside the middle wall, on the east side of the circular mound, a sacrificial altar was built with a diameter of 36 feet, a height of 3 feet, and steps on all four sides."
The altar for the Fangze ritual is located in the northern outskirts of the capital. It has a diameter of forty feet and is four feet high, with a step on each face. There are three surrounding walls outside the altar, with the distances between them equal to the radius of the circular mound. There is also a large encampment outside the walls, with a diameter of three hundred and twenty paces. The moat around the camp is twelve feet wide and ten feet deep, with a gate on each side. Additionally, at the ren position (a specific direction) of the altar, outside the middle wall, a pit for burying offerings is constructed, measuring twelve feet wide and deep. The circular mound is used for offerings of blue jade and silk, during the first month on the day of Xin, to honor the Supreme Deity of Heaven, and to honor the great ancestor, the Martial Emperor. The emperors of the five directions are honored at the middle layer of the circular mound. All altars face inward. The sun, moon, five stars, Big Dipper, twenty-eight constellations, the God of the Center, the God of Life, the God of Humanity, the God of Wealth, the Wind Master, the Rain Master, and the Spirit Stars are positioned at the lower layer of the circular mound, serving as sacrificial positions for the myriad stars, placed inside the inner wall. A total of nine blue sacrificial animals were used.
On the night before the sacrifice, the sacrificial animals were slaughtered. The next morning, the Grand Commandant went to the temple to offer the sacrifices, displaying the offerings behind the Temple of Divine Martiality, buried between the two pillars of the temple. The emperor made the initial offering, the Grand Commandant made the secondary offering, and the Minister of Rites made the concluding offering. The Minister of Works offered sacrifices to the Five Emperors, while the Minister of War offered sacrifices to the sun, moon, five stars, and twenty-eight lunar lodges. Officials below the Minister of Rites offered sacrifices to the various stars. For the offerings in Fangze, yellow jade and silk were utilized. On the summer solstice, sacrifices were offered to the Kunlun Emperor and the Earth Deity, with the Empress Wu Ming honored alongside.
The deities of the Divine Territory, the state, Mount Tai, Yizhen, Kuaiji Town, Cloud Mountain, Tingting Mountain, Meng Mountain, Yu Mountain, Yi Mountain, Song Mountain, Huo Mountain, Hengzhen, Jing Mountain, Neifang Mountain, Dabie Mountain, Fuqianyu Mountain, Tongbai Mountain, Peiwei Mountain, Huashan, Taiyue Town, Jishi Mountain, Longmen Mountain, Jiangshan, Qishan, Jing Mountain, Zhangzhong Mountain, Hukou Mountain, Leishou Mountain, Dizhu Mountain, Xicheng Mountain, Wangwu Mountain, Xiqing Zhu Yu Mountain, Niaoshu Tongxue Mountain, Xiong'er Mountain, Dunwu Mountain, Cai Meng Mountain, Liang Mountain, Min Mountain, Wugong Mountain, Taibai Mountain, Hengyue, Yi Wulu Mountain Town, Yin Mountain, Baideng Mountain, Jieshi Mountain, Taihang Mountain, Lang Mountain, Fenglong Mountain, Zhang Mountain, Xuanwu Mountain, En Mountain, Fang Mountain, Gou Mountain, Xialong Mountain, Huai River, East Sea, Si River, Yi River, Zi River, Wei River, Jiang River, South Sea, Han River, Gu River, Luo River, Yi River, Yang River, Mian River, He River, West Sea, Black River, Laoshui, Wei River, Jing River, Feng River, Ji River, North Sea, Song River, Jing River, Sangqian River, Zhang River, Huto River, Wei River, Huan River, Yan River, all were offered sacrifices.
The deity of the Divine Territory is positioned at the north side of the blue steps in the Jia Yin position, the state deity at the west side of the red steps in the Wei position, and Jici at the south side of the white steps in the Geng position; the rest were placed inside the inner wall, facing inward, each in its appointed position. A total of twelve sacrificial animals were used, with the ceremony the same as that of the Round Mound.
Later, the Confucian scholars reestablished the sacrificial rituals, stipulating that the sacrifices at the Round Hill should take place on the Winter Solstice. The sacrifices at the southern and northern suburbs are held once a year, on the Xin day of the first month. The southern suburb altar is built to the south of the capital, measuring thirty-six feet in diameter and nine feet in height, with each side featuring a step. There are three enclosing walls around it, with the inner wall located twenty-five paces from the altar, and the distance between the middle wall and the outer wall is the same as that of the inner wall. Each side has a gate. Outside the outer wall, a large encampment has been constructed, with a diameter of two hundred seventy paces. The moat surrounding the camp is ten feet wide and eight feet deep, with a gate on every side. Additionally, outside the middle wall at the Bing location, a fire altar is built, with a diameter of twenty-seven feet and a height of one foot eight inches, each side featuring a step. The sacrifices at the altar are offered to the spirits of the Heavenly Emperor, alongside the revered Emperor Gaozu. The sacrifices use four jade tablets and a sacrificial vessel, with the color of each offering corresponding to its direction. The Heavenly Emperor and Emperor Gaozu each have a special male sacrificial animal. The fire sacrifice ritual is the same as that at the Round Hill. The northern suburb altar is the same as the southern suburb altar, with the pit for burying offerings identical to that at Fangze, where the deity of the divine land is worshipped, alongside Empress Wuming. The sacrifices use two jade tablets and a sacrificial vessel, each using a yellow sacrificial animal, and the ritual for burying offerings is the same as that of Fangze.
During the Later Zhou period, the sacrificial rituals were primarily carried out in accordance with the "Rituals of the Zhou." The officials responsible for measuring the land specified the dimensions of the altars: the round altar had three tiers, stood twelve feet high, and was two zhang deep, with a top diameter of six zhang, comprising twelve steps, each consisting of twelve levels. It was built seven li outside the eastern suburbs of the capital. The circular altar's enclosure had a diameter of three hundred steps, with the inner enclosure being half the size of the outer enclosure. The square altar had one layer, faced eight directions, and stood ten feet high, had a side length of six zhang and eight feet, was five feet high on top, and had a side length of four zhang, with one step in each direction, totaling ten levels, each one foot high. The square altar was built six li outside the western suburbs of the capital. The square altar had one layer, faced eight directions, and stood ten feet high, had a side length of six zhang and eight feet, was five feet high on top, had a side length of four zhang, with one step in each direction, each level being one foot high. Its enclosure was octagonal, with a diameter of one hundred twenty steps, and the inner enclosure was half the size of the outer enclosure. The square altar in the southern suburbs was built five li south of the capital, stood twelve feet high, was four zhang in width, had an enclosure with a side length of one hundred twenty steps, and the inner enclosure was half the size of the outer enclosure. The Shenzhou altar stood ten feet tall, had a side length of four zhang, and was located to the right of the square altar in the northern suburbs, with an enclosure similar to that of the square altar.
On the first day of the first month, sacrifices were made to the round altar and the southern suburbs. When sacrificing on the round altar, both the Flame Emperor Shennong and the Supreme Heaven Emperor were honored together. The Five Directional Emperors, the Sun and Moon, the Inner Officials, the Central Officials, the Outer Officials, and the Stars were all honored together. The emperor rode in a blue carriage, wearing a black crown, with all the ceremonial retinue in attendance. Participants in the preliminary sacrifices wore blue clothing. When sacrificing in the southern suburbs, the ancestor Xianhou Monan and the spirit of the Emperor Lingwei were honored together. When sacrificing on the square altar in the northern suburbs, Shennong and Houtu were honored together. When sacrificing at the Shenzhou altar, Xianhou Monan was also honored together.
The livestock used for sacrifices to the Heavenly Sovereign, Earthly Spirits, the Five Emperors, the Sun and Moon, the Five Planets, the Twelve Earthly Branches, the Four Directions, and the Five Officials must all be livestock with corresponding colored fur. Yellow livestock are used for ancestral temples, black livestock for community altars, and uniformly colored livestock for general sacrifices. The livestock used for sacrifices must be selected based on the colors required for different ritual ceremonies.
Emperor Gaozu wanted to establish a new system for sacrifices, so he had the Grand Sacrificial Official, Xin Yanzhi, establish the guidelines for the sacrificial rites.
To the south of the capital, two li to the east of the Sun Gate, a round mound was constructed. This mound consists of four tiers, each measuring eight feet and one inch in height, with diameters of twenty, fifteen, ten, and five zhang from bottom to top. Every winter solstice, sacrifices are made on this mound to the Heavenly Sovereign, with Emperor Wuyuan serving as the accompanying sacrifice. The Deities of the Five Directions, the Sun and Moon, the Five Planets, Forty-Two Inner Officials, One Hundred Thirty-Six Secondary Officials, One Hundred Eleven Outer Officials, and Three Hundred Sixty Stars are all sacrificed to as well. The Heavenly Sovereign and the Sun and Moon are on the second tier of the mound, the Big Dipper, the Twelve Earthly Branches, the Milky Way, and the Inner Officials are on the third tier, the Twenty-Eight Mansions and the Middle Officials are on the fourth tier, the Outer Officials occupy the inner circle, and the Stars are positioned in the outer circle. The livestock used for sacrifices to the Heavenly Sovereign and the accompanying Emperor consists of two green calves, while the Five Emperors and the Sun and Moon each have a different colored calf, and those representing the entities below the Five Planets are offered nine sheep and nine pigs.
Fourteen miles north of the imperial palace, a square altar was constructed. The square altar is divided into two levels, each level being five feet high, with the bottom level having a side length of ten zhang and the upper level having a side length of five zhang. On the day of the summer solstice, sacrifices were offered on this square altar to the Emperor's Earth God, with the founding emperor serving as the accompanying deity. The mountains, rivers, forests, marshes, hills, tombs, and ancestral shrines of the nine provinces of Shenzhou, Yingzhou, Jizhou, Rongzhou, Shizhou, Zhuzhou, Yingzhou, Xianzhou, and Yangzhou were also honored together. Two yellow calves were offered to the Earth God and the accompanying Emperor on the altar. The mountain gods of the nine provinces were placed between the eight steps of the altar, with their specific positions as follows: Shenzhou in the southeast, Yingzhou in the south, Jizhou and Rongzhou in the southwest, Shizhou in the west, Zhuzhou in the northwest, Yingzhou in the north, Xianzhou in the northeast, and Yangzhou in the east. Each mountain god was represented by a calf of a different color. The mountains, seas, and other geographical features of the other nine provinces were also placed between the eight steps according to their directions. The mountains, forests, rivers, marshes, hills, tombs, and ancestral shrines of Jizhou were positioned slightly to the west of the altar's southern side, with nine sheep and nine pigs added.
South of the capital, one mile west of the Sun Gate, ten miles from the imperial palace, the South Suburban Altar was built. The altar stands seven feet tall and four zhang wide. Every year on the Xinday of the first month of spring, sacrifices are offered here to the Emperor Chi of the Ancestral Spirits, with Emperor Wuyuan serving as the accompanying deity. Four gui tablets are used in the ritual, and two red calves are used as sacrificial offerings. Every year in the first month of winter, sacrifices are made in the North Suburbs to the God of Shenzhou, with Emperor Wuyuan serving as the accompanying deity, using two calves. For large-scale sacrifices, fasting officials must gather at the Ministry of Rites in the early morning to take oaths and receive admonitions. They fast for four days and abstain for three days. On the day before the sacrifice, water is poured onto the water clock at noon, and upon arrival at the sacrificial site, they bathe, change clothes, and put on the sacrificial clothing, with no one permitted to hear the sounds of mourning or crying in funeral attire.
The Lord of Heaven, the Five Directional Lords, the Sun and Moon, the Earth Deity, the deities of the nation and the ancestral temple belong to the grand sacrifices; the stars, the Five Offerings, and the four observances belong to the medium sacrifices; the officials in charge, the deity of fate, the wind master, the rain master, and various stars and mountains belong to the minor sacrifices. The livestock for grand sacrifices must be raised for ninety days, medium sacrifices require thirty days of raising, and minor sacrifices for ten days. If it is difficult to gather livestock of the required colors for the sacrifices, pure-colored ones can be used as substitutes. Livestock designated for petitions and prayers do not require raising. Livestock for sacrifices must not be beaten, and if they die, they must be buried.
It is said that when the Emperor first accepted the abdication of the Zhou Dynasty, he felt a bit uncertain, fearing that the common people might not be convinced in their hearts, so he carried out a lot of auspicious propaganda to show his divine mandate. Those people, in order to please the Emperor, fabricated auspicious signs, which were truly countless.
In the winter of the first year of Ren Shou, on the day of the winter solstice, the Emperor held a sacrifice at the southern suburbs, setting up altars for the Lord of Heaven and the Five Directional Lords, all on the sacrificial altar, similar to the ceremony of Fengshan. The wooden board used for the sacrifice was inscribed: "The board says:" (Original text retained, not translated)
In the year 601 AD, a year of unrest, I, Emperor Yang Jian, who inherited the throne, must report to the Lord of Heaven: Look, the North Star is in motion, and the sun shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer. I am favored by Heaven and under the protection of the deities, governing this land to ensure the people's peace and prosperity. But I am deeply aware of my limited abilities and the inadequacies of my governance. I worry day and night, fearing I may be negligent.
The heavens and the earth have bestowed upon us auspicious signs, with peace throughout the land and magical phenomena everywhere. Since my ascension to the throne, I have received guidance from the turtle shells, relocated the capital, established the ceremonial tripod, and witnessed sweet springs gush forth. I have subdued the Chen dynasty, and the dragon boats embarked on successful expeditions. I have traveled across the land, made offerings to the Eastern Peak Emperor, and the blind regain their sight, the mute regain their speech, and even the paralyzed rise to walk. Since the Kaihuang era, the sun's path has drawn nearer to the North Pole, daylight has lengthened, and the heavens have foretold a peaceful and prosperous era. Even animals have displayed strange phenomena, with willow trees sprouting pine-like branches. The stone fish manifest auspicious omens, the jade rabbit signifies the nation's prosperity, and mountain stones consecutively bear my name, praising the nation's prosperity. Various classics and scriptures, as well as the inscriptions on the jade turtle, all confirm these auspicious signs. In the palaces, valleys, and mountains, stones have turned into jade, countless in number. Lustrous glass can be found everywhere on the hills and mountains, golden silver flows from the sacred mountains, and jade grows from the auspicious peaks. The mountains of Duoyang resound with three calls of "national prosperity," while the Lianyun mountains resound with the proclamation of "may the nation thrive for ten thousand years." Wild geese fly down from the sky and settle in ponds, sacred deer enter the imperial hunting grounds, appearing frequently to guide us. The Zouyu appears, the Lin deer run wild in the fields, deer antlers grow on willow trees, and dragon springs surge forth in the Jing Valley. Joyous clouds radiate vibrant colors, the Longevity Star beams with radiant light. Lingzhi mushrooms flourish upon the palace rooftops, precious treasures emerge from mountains, rivers, and plains. Aromatic scents permeate the air, and sweet dew gathers. The black stones of Wushan in Dunhuang turn white, and the stone blossoms of the Hongluo ridges radiate brightly afar. Black foxes, black leopards, white rabbits, white wolves, red sparrows, blue crows, wild silkworms, celestial beans, auspicious grains, and precious woods intertwine, with an unending display of auspicious signs.
These divine omens and auspicious signs are all the result of Heaven's great grace, granting us endless blessings, and I truly find it difficult to enumerate them all. All of this is due to the manifestation of the Supreme Deity of Heaven, who shows compassion for the common people, ensuring peace throughout the land, which is why we are granted these auspicious signs, allowing the people to live and work in peace. How could this be influenced by my meager sincerity? With a devout heart, I offer jade, silk, livestock, grains, and other sacrificial offerings to the Supreme Deity of Heaven. My father, the Great Ancestor Emperor Wu Yuan, is also honored in the sacrifices.
In the year 605, sacrifices were made to the Compassionate Emperor in spring and to the gods of the land in winter, which were combined with the sacrifices to Emperor Gaozu Wen. Other sacrificial rites continued to follow the previous customs.
Ten years later, in the winter solstice of 610, sacrifices took place at the Round Mound. The emperor did not fast in advance before the sacrificial ceremony. The next morning, after preparing the ceremonial entourage, the sacrifices began immediately upon arrival at the Round Mound. That day, a strong wind blew, and the emperor personally made offerings to the Supreme Deity, while the three ministers made offerings to the Five Emperors. After the ceremony, the emperor quickly rode back to the palace.
The Mingtang is located in the southern part of the country. In the early Liang Dynasty, following the practices established during the Song and Qi Dynasties, the regulations for the sacrifices at the Mingtang also adhered to the old practices of the Qi Dynasty. However, some of the ceremonies were deemed inappropriate, so Emperor Wu discussed modifications with scholars. In the past, during the sacrificial ceremonies of the Qi Dynasty, the emperor wore the ceremonial robe and ceremonial crown. It was not until the seventh year of the Tianjian era that the ceremonial fur robe was made, but the "Mingtang Ritual Regulations" still stated to wear the ceremonial robe. Ten years later, the ritual official Zhu Yi proposed, "The 'Book of Rites' states that when sacrificing to the Supreme Deity of Heaven, one should wear a ceremonial fur robe and crown. The same applies to sacrifices to the Five Emperors. This is because the celestial deities are exalted, so the sacrifices should be sincere and simple. Now that we are broadly sacrificing to the Five Emperors, we should not emphasize luxurious attire." Thus, the attire was changed to the ceremonial fur robe.
Zhu Yi also said, "The old rituals of the Qi dynasty originally used bronze wine vessels. The sacrificial ceremonies in the Mingtang emphasize simplicity, so the three offerings ritual should not be conducted, nor should ivory wine vessels be used. The 'Book of Rites' states, 'In morning sacrifices, a great wine vessel should be used.' Zheng Xuan explained that the 'great wine vessel' refers to a pottery vessel. The 'Book of Documents' also mentions, 'The Yu clan used pottery vessels.' These vessels are all used in temples and are relatively simple; thus, ivory wine vessels should not be used in the Mingtang. I suggest changing to pottery vessels to align with the principle of balancing cultural significance and practicality." He also said, "The sacrificial ceremonies in ancestral temples emphasize grandeur, so there is a wide variety of sacrificial offerings, but sacrifices to heaven should be simple. The sacrificial offerings recorded in the 'Yizhu' are currently the same as those used in ancestral temple sacrifices, which is inappropriate both in theory and practice. I suggest that from now on, the number of sacrificial offerings in the Mingtang should match those in the suburban sacrifices. However, the emperor's sacrifices primarily express gratitude to heaven for the abundant harvest, which carries great significance. It is not like sacrificing to the Supreme Emperor, which emphasizes solemnity and reverence. Although it is similar to suburban sacrifices, there should still be some differences. For example, offerings should still include products of the land and water, as well as vegetables and fruits. Only four types of fruits should be used: pears, dates, oranges, and chestnuts; four types of vegetables: ginger, papyrus, mallow, and leeks; and four types of grains: glutinous rice, millet, sorghum, and foxtail millet. Additionally, any offerings not included in suburban sacrifices should be removed."
In the beginning, Dr. Ming Shanbin established the "Rituals." The Mingtang conducts sacrifices to the Five Emperors, and the ceremony begins with the Red Emperor. Zhu Yi expressed his opinion, stating: "Since the Mingtang generally sacrifices the Five Emperors, there should be no fixed order, and we should begin at the eastern steps, starting with the Spring Emperor. I recommend starting with the Green Emperor." He also said: "The sacrificial vessels in the Mingtang are intricately carved. Suburban sacrifices prioritize simplicity, thus, pottery and gourds should not be used; ancestral temple sacrifices emphasize elegance, so exquisitely crafted sacrificial vessels should be used. The Mingtang sacrifices should be as elegant as suburban sacrifices, so pottery and gourds cannot be used; and as simple as ancestral temple sacrifices, so exquisitely crafted sacrificial vessels should not be used. After weighing the pros and cons, we should focus on the essence and suggest using only pure lacquerware." Zhu Yi also said: "In the traditional rituals for sacrificing the Five Emperors in the Mingtang, first sprinkle the fragrant spirits, then pour onto the ground to invoke the spirits, first offer clear wine, followed by ling wine, and then lu wine. After the ritual is over, the Grand Priest should take the millet and meat from the offerings and present them before the Emperor. I recommend adhering to the suburban ritual by offering clear wine just once. Moreover, the Five Emperors are heavenly gods, so there should be no invocation of spirits on the ground, and there is no millet and meat offering in suburban sacrifices. Therefore, I suggest abolishing the practices of pouring onto the ground and presenting offerings."
He said again: "The sacrifices in the old Mingtang were all made with too many sacrificial animals (cows, sheep, pigs). The Book of Rites says: 'The special sacrificial animal (either a cow or a sheep) is used for the suburban sacrifices'; it also says 'The cows for the sacrifices to heaven and earth must have curled horns and chestnut-colored fur.' Since the Five Emperors are heavenly gods, they should not be sacrificed with the three types of livestock. In the 'Book of Songs' under the section 'I Will', it is said that King Wen of Zhou sacrificed in the Mingtang, with mention of 'sheep and cows'. This is because the Zhou dynasty inherited the rituals of the Xia and Shang dynasties, which emphasized elegance. The sacrifices in the Mingtang were similar to suburban sacrifices and were not overly simplistic, so they used the three livestock. This was only the system of the Zhou dynasty. Now we should consider the practices of emperors of all dynasties and follow the rules and systems; although vegetable and fruit offerings align with Zhou rituals, livestock offerings should follow the systems of the Xia and Shang dynasties. I suggest that from now on, only one cow should be used for sacrifices in the Mingtang, which not only adheres to the principle of balancing cultural significance and quality but also reflects sincerity." The emperor accepted his suggestion. Earlier, the emperor wanted to modify the architecture of the Mingtang, so he issued an edict and discussed its meaning with his courtiers. The edict stated: "The architecture of the Mingtang should follow the records in the 'Da Dai Li Ji': 'Nine rooms, eight windows, thirty-six doors. The roof should be thatched, round on top and square at the bottom.' Zheng Xuan also said according to the 'Yuan Shen Qi' that 'round on top and square at the bottom', and also 'eight windows, four entrances'. The original meaning of the Mingtang was to worship the Five Emperors; the requirement for nine rooms is unreasonable. If it is five palaces, although it fits the number of the Five Emperors, if facing south, it would be turning its back on Ye Guangji (a star name); facing north, it would be turning its back on Chixiaonu (a star name); facing east or west would be the same, which is all inappropriate. Moreover, sacrificing the Five Emperors in the Mingtang is a general sacrifice; sacrificing the Five Emperors in the suburban sacrifices is a separate sacrifice. The gods to be worshipped in the ancestral temple should also have palaces; if only one palace is designated, it does not align with the worship of the Five Emperors; if all five palaces are allocated, it becomes five palaces. Logically, the Mingtang was never intended to have palaces."
Zhu Yi said, "The 'Yueling' states that 'the Emperor resides on the left and right sides of the Mingtang.' The ritual of listening to the new moon is held in the Mingtang, and if there is no palace now, it will appear incomplete." The edict said, "If according to Zheng Xuan's statement, listening to the new moon must be in the Mingtang, then people and gods will be confused, and the solemn etiquette will be abolished. The 'Spring and Autumn Annals' states: 'Living between two great states.' The left and right sides of the Mingtang mentioned here refer to the south side of the palaces where the Five Emperors are worshipped, as well as the small palaces, also known as Mingtang, divided into three locations for the ritual of listening to the new moon. Since there are three locations, there is a distinction between the left and right sides. Outside the camp, there are names of palaces outside the Mingtang, which explains the left and right sides of the hall. Therefore, the place for listening to the new moon is outside the palaces of the Five Emperors, with a distinction between people and gods, which is not relevant." There was no unanimous opinion on this issue at first, and no modifications were made. In the twelfth year of his reign, the Minister of Ceremonies, Yu [Rijue], again cited the nine-foot banquet described in the 'Rites of Zhou' as the standard for the dimensions of the Mingtang, so the steps were nine feet high. The system of the Han Dynasty still followed this etiquette, so Zhang Heng said, "measure the hall with a banquet." Zheng Xuan believed that the three temples should be of the same standard, all measured at nine feet. The edict said, "Okay." So the Taiji Hall of the Song Dynasty was demolished, and its materials were used to build a Mingtang with twelve rooms, the same scale as the Taiji Hall. The central six rooms house six divine thrones, all facing south. Starting from the east, the first throne is for the Green Emperor, the second throne is for the Red Emperor, the third throne is for the Yellow Emperor, the fourth throne is for the White Emperor, and the fifth throne is for the Black Emperor. A total of five emperors are worshipped, facing west from the steps. Behind the main hall are five small halls, serving as the halls for the five assistants.
During the Sui Dynasty, there was a Mingtang in the imperial palace, comprising twelve rooms. In the middle six rooms, following the customs of the Qi Dynasty, there were six seats for sacrificial purposes. Four emperors were worshipped in the four directions, with the Yellow Emperor sitting in the Kun position (due south), and the positions of the other emperors were arranged according to certain rules. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the Virtuous Emperor was worshipped alongside the Yellow Emperor; during the reign of Emperor Wen, the Martial Emperor was worshipped alongside the Yellow Emperor; after the abdication of the Waste Emperor, the Literary Emperor was worshipped alongside the Yellow Emperor. The sacrificial animals included cattle, sheep, and pigs, and there were six kinds of rice offerings, as well as various soups, fruits, and vegetables, lavishly arranged. Later, during the Qi Dynasty, the Mingtang was reconstructed into five rooms based on the "Zhou Guan·Kao Gong Ji," and during the Zhou Dynasty, it was rebuilt into nine rooms based on the "San Fu Huang Tu" of the Han Dynasty, each maintained its own system, but ultimately, none were ever fully realized. After Emperor Yang Jian of the Sui Dynasty defeated the Chen Dynasty, he collected a lot of wood, and the suburban sacrificial site for the ancestral temple and the Earth God was nearly finished, with only the Mingtang left to be built. In the thirteenth year of the Kaihuang era, Emperor Yang Jian ordered discussions on the construction of the Mingtang. The Minister of Rites, Niu Hong, the Chief Sacrifice Officer of the National University, Xin Yanzhi, and others collaboratively developed a plan, the details of which are chronicled in Niu Hong's biography. Later, the engineer Yu Wenkai designed a wooden model of the Mingtang according to the records in the "Yue Ling," a structure featuring a double-eaved gable roof, five main rooms, passages in all four directions, strict size specifications, and presented it to Emperor Yang Jian for approval. Yang Jian thought the design was excellent and ordered the craftsmen to commence construction in the An Ye area of the palace.
Just as work was about to commence, Yang Jian ordered a careful study of the plan, leading to endless debates among a group of Confucian scholars, with no one able to sway the others. Niu Hong and his colleagues drafted a new memorial based on classical texts and presented it to the emperor. At that time, there was significant opposition, and the issue dragged on for a long time without resolution, ultimately leading to its cancellation. During the reign of Emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Dynasty, Yu Wen Kai redesigned a plan and model for the Ming Tang and presented it to the emperor. Yang Guang approved the plan but only ordered timber to be harvested from Mount Huo. Later, due to being busy with the construction of the eastern capital, Luoyang, and various projects, the construction plan for the Ming Tang was eventually put on hold.
Throughout the Sui Dynasty, sacrifices to the Five Deities took place at the Ming Tang. Every autumn, sacrificial activities were conducted at the Yu Altar, with the sacrificial items differing based on the deities being honored. The Emperor was positioned to the left of the Heavenly Emperor. The tablet of Emperor Taizu Wu Yuan (Yang Jian) was located south of Taihao (the Eastern Heavenly Emperor), facing west. The tablets of the Five Officials (deities of the Five Directions) were arranged in the courtyard by their respective positions. The sacrificial livestock included twelve calves. The Emperor, the Grand Chancellor, and the Minister of Agriculture performed the three offerings together to the Qing Emperor and Emperor Taizu Wu Yuan, while other officials helped with the sacrifices. The sacrifices to the Five Officials took place under the Ming Tang, with a single offering and a fire ritual. The preparation of sacrificial livestock and cooked food was akin to the rituals for the southern suburbs.
