Kangguo is a descendant of the Kangju nation. They always move around and have no fixed place to live, but they have existed without interruption since the Han Dynasty. Their king originally bore the surname Wen and was of Yuezhi descent. They used to live in Zhaowu City, located north of the Qilian Mountains, but were later defeated by the Xiongnu and fled west of the Congling Mountains, thus establishing Kangguo. The king's brothers each claimed to be kings, so the neighboring countries of Kangguo adopted Zhaowu as their surname to honor their origins.
The current king is named Daishibi, who is known for his generosity and is well-liked by the people. His wife is the daughter of the Tujue Khagan. Their capital is built in Aludi City on the Sabao River, where many people live. State affairs are jointly managed by three ministers. The king has long hair, wears a gold hat adorned with seven different gems, and dons luxurious silk clothes. His wife wears a black headscarf and has her hair styled in a bun. Men sport short hair and don brocade robes. Although Kangguo is regarded as a powerful nation, many nations in the Western Regions are under its influence, such as Miguo, Shiguo, Caoguo, Heguo, Anguo, Xiao Anguo, Nasebo Country, Wunaho Country, and Muguo, all of which are under Kangguo's rule.
They have their own set of laws stored in the Zoroastrian temple, which are used when judging cases. Serious crimes result in extermination of the family, while lesser crimes lead to execution, and theft results in cutting off the feet. The people of Kangguo all have deep eye sockets, high nose bridges, and stubbly beards. They are skilled in business, attracting merchants from various regions to trade in Kangguo. Kangguo has instruments such as drums, pipa, five-stringed qin, konghou, and flutes. Their marriage and funeral customs are similar to those of the Tujue people. They have ancestral temples and worship their ancestors every June, with surrounding countries participating in the worship activities. The people of Kangguo follow Buddhism and use Hu writing. The climate there is warm and conducive to growing grains. They are hardworking farmers, successfully cultivating vegetables, fruits, and trees.
Kangguo produces horses, camels, mules, donkeys, yaks, gold, a mineral called naosha, as well as various types of incense, including asana and serenity (a type of spice), deer hides, felt blankets, and satin. They produce a lot of wine and enjoy good harvests every year. During the Daye era, Kangguo began sending envoys to offer tribute of special products but later cut off contact.
Anguo is the ancient Parthian Empire during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and he was of the same lineage as the king of Kangguo, with the style name Shelideng. His wife was the daughter of the king of Kangguo. Anguo was located south of the Misi River, which was surrounded by flowing water and had five layers of city walls. All the palaces had flat roofs. The king sat on a seat made of gold in the shape of a camel hump, around seven or eight feet high. Every time he dealt with state affairs, he and the queen sat facing each other, with three ministers on the side discussing national affairs. The customs of Anguo were similar to those of Kangguo. The only difference was that it was popular for sisters and mothers and sons to kill each other, which is quite peculiar. After Emperor Yang of Sui became emperor, he sent the Sili envoy Du Xingman to the Western Regions, and upon reaching Anguo, he brought back five different colors of salt.
Biguo is located more than a hundred li west of Anguo, with probably over a thousand households. This country lacks its own monarch and is governed by Anguo. In the fifth year of Daye, Biguo sent envoys to offer tribute, but later severed ties.
Shi Guo, located by the Yao Sha River, has a capital city that spans over ten li in diameter. The king is surnamed Shi and given the name Nie. In the southeast of the city of Shi Guo, there is a house that contains a bed. On the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month every year, they place the ashes of the king's parents in a golden urn on the bed, and then the king walks around the bed with his courtiers, sprinkling floral incense and various fruits as offerings. After the sacrifice, the king and queen go to another tent, where the ministers take their seats in turn to celebrate with food and drink before dispersing. Shi Guo has rice, wheat, and many good horses. They are known for their martial prowess and once submitted to the Turks. Later, the Turkic Khan led an army to conquer Shi Guo and appointed a man named Teqindianzhi to oversee the affairs of Shi Guo. Shi Guo is six hundred li away from Western Turkistan and six thousand li away from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of Daye, but has not sent any since.
Once upon a time, there was a matriarchal kingdom located south of the Congling Mountains, where all the rulers were female. The reigning queen was named Su Pi, whose courtesy name was Mo Jie, and she had been queen for twenty years. The queen's husband, Jin Ju, had no involvement in political affairs. The men in the country were tasked solely with fighting wars. Their capital city was situated on a mountain, spanning approximately five or six miles and housing over ten thousand families. The queen lived in a nine-story building, attended by hundreds of palace maids, and held court only once every five days. There was also a vice queen who helped manage state affairs. Their customs were quite unique, where women held high status, looking down on men without feeling envious. Both men and women liked to paint their faces in various colors, often changing them several times a day. Everyone wore their hair loose and donned leather shoes, and tax collection was inconsistent. The weather there was quite cold, and they primarily depended on hunting for their livelihood. They notably produced a large quantity of jade, cinnabar, musk, yaks, good horses, and Shu horses, with a particularly large salt production, making a substantial profit by selling salt to Tianzhu (India). They frequently engaged in wars with Tianzhu and the Tanguts. After the queen's death, the entire kingdom was required to raise a substantial amount of money and select two exceptional women from the deceased's family, one to become queen and the other to serve as vice queen. If a noble died, their skin would be removed, dusted with gold powder, and buried in a jar along with their bones and flesh. After a year, the skin would then be wrapped around an iron object and reburied. They worshipped the Asura god, as well as the tree god, offering sacrifices of humans or macaques at the start of each year. Following the sacrifices, they would pray in the mountains, and a bird resembling a hen would perch on their hand. They would then cut open its belly to examine its insides. If it was grain, it would indicate a year of good harvest; if it was sand and stones, it would signal a year of disasters. This practice was known as bird divination. During the sixth year of the Kaihuang era, they dispatched envoys to offer tribute, but later, contact was lost.
The Kingdom of Yanqi, seventy miles south of Baishan, is an ancient kingdom from the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Long, whose style name is Tuqi. The capital spans about two miles, boasting nine cities and over a thousand elite soldiers. The kingdom has few regulations. Their customs include practicing Buddhism, somewhat akin to Brahmanism. Marriage customs are similar to those of the Central Plains. When someone passes away, they are cremated, and the mourning period lasts for seven days. All men have their hair cut. The region is rich in fish, salt, and reeds. Traveling east, it is 900 miles to Gaochang, and traveling west, it is also 900 miles to Kucha, both across arid deserts and barren lands. Going southeast, it is 2,200 miles to Guazhou. During the Dali era, they dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
The Kingdom of Kucha, one hundred seventy miles south of Baishan, is an ancient kingdom from the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Bai, whose style name is Sunidie. The capital stretches six miles, with several thousand fierce soldiers. Custom dictates that murderers must pay with their lives, and robbers face the punishment of losing one arm and one leg. Their customs are similar to those of Yanqi. The king wears a colorful ribbon on his head that hangs down his back while seated on a throne crafted from golden lions. The region is rich in rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, along with copper, iron, lead, deer hides, blankets, gold dust, malachite, orpiment, realgar, white lead, frankincense, as well as fine horses and fat cattle. Traveling east, it is 900 miles to Yanqi, going south, it is 1,400 miles to Yutian, going west, it is 1,500 miles to Shule, going northwest, it is over 600 miles to the Tujue tribe, and going southeast, it is 3,100 miles to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Kucha also dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
The Kingdom of Shule, located over a hundred miles south of Baishan, is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. The king's name was Amijue. He and his people all have six fingers on their hands and feet. If a child is born without six fingers, they cannot survive. The capital city spans five miles. There are twelve large cities and several dozen small cities in the country, boasting a formidable army of two thousand soldiers. The king wears a hat adorned with a golden lion. The region produces rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and realgar (a type of arsenic sulfide), which are presented as tribute to the Turks annually. To the south of the Kingdom of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west lies the Xiongnu territory, 1,000 miles distant, to the east lies Qiuci, located 1,500 miles away, to the south lies Zhu Jubo, approximately 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast is the Turks' Yabu, more than a thousand miles distant, and to the southeast is Guazhou, 4,600 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Shule also dispatched envoys to present local products as tribute.
In the country of Khotan, just over 200 miles north of the Congling Mountains. The king's surname is Wang, with the courtesy name Beishibi Lian. The capital city is approximately eight or nine miles in circumference. The country has five major cities, dozens of small cities, and only a few thousand well-trained troops. The common people follow Buddhism, with many monks and nuns, and the king often eats vegetarian food and chants scriptures. Fifty miles south of the city is a Zhamo Temple, which is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha etched into the stones. "Zhamo Temple, said to be built by the Arhat Bhikshu Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha on the stone." Five hundred miles to the west is another Bimo Temple, said to be the place where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhists. "Five hundred miles west of Khotan is the Bimo Temple, said to be the place where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhists." The people of this place lack moral integrity, with many thieves and bandits, and are very licentious. The king wears a brocade hat and a gold rat crown, while the queen wears a golden flower. The king's hair is not allowed to be seen by others, as the locals say that if the king's hair is seen, the harvest that year will surely be poor. "It is said that if the king's hair is seen, the harvest that year will surely be poor." This region is abundant in hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and various fruits, and features many gardens, as well as a wealth of beautiful jade from the mountains. To the east lies Shanshan, 1,500 miles away, to the south lies Nüguo, 3,000 miles away, to the west lies Chüjubo, 1,000 miles away, to the north lies Kucha, 1,400 miles away, and to the northeast lies Guazhou, 2,800 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, Khotan often sent envoys to present tributes.
In the country of Tashkent, more than 500 miles west of the Congling Mountains, formerly known as Qusuoguo (渠搜国). The king's surname is Zhaowu, with the courtesy name Aliqi. The capital city is about four miles in circumference, with a few thousand well-trained troops. The king sits on a chair made of golden ram, and the queen wears a golden flower. The local area is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east lies Shule, 1,000 miles away, to the west lies Sufengshana Kingdom, 500 miles away, to the northwest lies Shiguo, 500 miles away, to the northeast lies the Tujue Tooth, more than 2,000 miles away, and to the east lies Guazhou, 5,500 miles away. During the Daye period, they too sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
Tocharian Kingdom, located five hundred miles west of Congling, shares borders with Yida Kingdom. Its capital covers only two miles. Despite this, they boast an impressive army of one hundred thousand well-trained elite soldiers. They also follow Buddhism. A peculiar custom here is that brothers share a single wife and take turns sleeping with her. When it's someone's turn, they hang their clothes outside the door to mark it. Legend has it that divine horses dwell in the mountain caves. Every year, mares are placed in the caves, and they produce renowned foals. To the south is Cao Kingdom, 1,700 miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, 5,800 miles away. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
Yida Kingdom, located about two hundred miles south of the Wuxu River, is inhabited by the descendants of the Yuezhi. They have five to six thousand soldiers, brave and good at fighting. Historically, during a period of turmoil, the Turks appointed a man named Tong Shezijiang as their king. Their capital is about ten miles in circumference, featuring numerous temples and pagodas decorated in gold. They also practice a custom allowing brothers to share a wife. If a woman has just one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if her husband has multiple brothers, her hat will have additional horns. Yida Kingdom is 1,500 miles from Cao Kingdom and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also frequently sent tribute.
Mi Kingdom, located west of the Nanmi River, was formerly part of the Kangju territory. They have no king; the eldest resident is named Zhaowu, a side branch of the Kang royal family, nicknamed Bizhuo. Their capital is only two miles in size, boasting only a few hundred soldiers. Mi Kingdom is one hundred miles from Kang Kingdom, five hundred miles from Suduoshana Kingdom, two hundred miles from Shiguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also frequently sent tribute.
Shiguo, ten miles south of the Du Mo River, was once part of the territory of Kangju. Their king, Zhaowu, whose style name was Tizhe, was also a branch of the Kang Kingdom. The capital covered an area of only two miles, with a military of over a thousand soldiers. Their customs resembled those of the Kang Kingdom. Shiguo was 240 miles from Kang Kingdom, 500 miles from Tuhuoluo, 200 miles from Nasebo Kingdom, 200 miles from Mi Kingdom, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they sent envoys to pay tribute as well.
Caoguo, a few miles south of the Nanmi River, was also previously the territory of Kangju. The kingdom was without a ruler, so the King of Kang appointed his son Wujian to govern it. The capital was three miles in circumference, with a military of over a thousand soldiers. Caoguo had a remarkable feature, with a deity revered by many nations from the West Sea to the East. This deity had a golden statue, five feet wide and proportionally tall. Each day, five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were offered as sacrifices to it, with leftovers that could feed a thousand people and still not be finished. Caoguo was 100 miles from Kang Kingdom, 150 miles from He Kingdom, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they sent envoys to pay tribute.
Hegu, a few miles south of the Nanmi River, was also previously the territory of Kangju. Their king, Zhaowu, was a relative of the King of Kang, whose style name was Dun. The capital was only two miles in size, with a military of a thousand soldiers. The king's throne was crafted from gold in the shape of a sheep. Hegu was 150 miles from Caoguo, 300 miles from Xiaoan Kingdom, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they sent envoys to pay tribute.
Wunaho Kingdom, whose capital was located on the west bank of the Wuhu River, was once part of the Anxi Kingdom. Their king, Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom, had the style name Foshi. The city walls of the capital extended for two miles. They had merely a few hundred elite soldiers. The king's throne was crafted from gold in the shape of a sheep. Four hundred miles northeast was Anguo, over two hundred miles northwest was Muguo, and 7,500 miles east was Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Mu Kingdom, whose capital lies to the west of the Wu River, is also the former domain of the Anxi Kingdom, neighboring the Wunaho Kingdom. Their king is also surnamed Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom, whose courtesy name is Alanmi. The capital city extends three miles along its perimeter, with two thousand elite soldiers. Five hundred miles northeast lies Anguo, two hundred miles east is the Wunaho Kingdom, over four thousand miles to the west lies the Persian Kingdom, and seven thousand seven hundred miles east is Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to pay tribute with local products.
Speaking of the Persian Kingdom, it is situated west of the Dudahe River, in the city of Sulindu, which is the ancient Tiaozhi. Their king is named Kusahe. The capital covers an area of over ten miles. They have over twenty thousand elite soldiers who fight mounted on elephants. In this country, there is no death penalty, with the most severe punishment for crimes being amputation of hands or feet, confiscation of property, shaving of the offender's beard, or wearing a wooden sign around the neck for identification. Children aged three and older are required to pay a tax of four coins. They also practice the custom of marrying their sisters. After a person dies, the body is abandoned on a mountain, and the family is required to mourn for a month. The king wears a golden flower crown, sits on a throne made of golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, dons brocade robes, and adorns himself with jade ornaments.
Persia is rich in good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, large bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a gemstone), beast spirit (a type of gemstone), coral, glass, agate, crystal, sapphire (a gemstone), huluge (a gemstone), luteng (a gemstone), fire jade (a type of gemstone), diamond, gold, silver, golden stone (a mineral), copper, brittle iron (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, kushak (a type of blanket), tazi (a type of blanket or fabric), huna (a fabric), yuenor cloth (a fabric), sandalwood incense, silk woven with gold thread, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as incense, saffron, musk, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, half-honey (a type of sugar), thousand-year old dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a medicinal herb), wushizi (a medicinal herb), green vitriol, and realgar. The Turks were unable to defeat them and could only exercise indirect rule over them. Persia often sent envoys to pay tribute to the Central Plains dynasty. Persia is hundreds of miles from the sea, over four thousand miles from Mu country (possibly referring to Tubo), four thousand five hundred miles northwest of Byzantium, and eleven thousand seven hundred miles east of Guazhou (Gansu). During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, the Yunqi Wei Li Yu was sent to Persia as an envoy, and later other envoys were sent to present various treasures. Cao Kingdom, north of the Congling Range, was called Jibin country during the Han Dynasty. In other words, it is in the Pamirs region today. Their king, whose surname is Zhaowu and given name is Shunda, is a relative of the Kang Dynasty royal family. The capital is enclosed by walls that are approximately four li in circumference. The army is elite, with over ten thousand soldiers. The laws in this country are very strict, with death being the punishment for both murder and theft. However, they have a peculiar custom of being particularly superstitious about a variety of chaotic deities.
On the mountain of Congling, there is a temple dedicated to the God of Good Fortune. The temple is quite impressive, with roofs made of gold, silver, and copper, and the ground is laid with silver. Every day, there are thousands of people who come to worship. In front of the temple, there is a fish spine with a hole in the middle, big enough for a horse to enter and exit, which feels quite magical. The king dons a hat crafted from goldfish heads and sits on a throne made of gold horses, exuding an air of majesty.
This place produces rice, millet, beans, wheat, elephants, horses, a type of cattle called Fengniu, as well as gold, silver, bing iron, a type of high-quality steel, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, aloeswood, and other spices, honey, semi-honey products, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
From Caoguo to the north to Fanyan, it's a journey of seven hundred li; to the east to Jueguo, it's six hundred li; and to the northeast to Guazhou, it's a full six thousand six hundred li. During the Sui Dynasty, they even sent envoys to offer various special products.
It is said that the country of Fu is located more than two thousand li northwest of Shu County, which is the land of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fu, who govern themselves, with customs similar to those of Fu, but with a language that varies slightly and lacks standardization. They do not have surnames. The king of Fu goes by the name Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li long from southeast to northwest, without city walls; they inhabit areas close to river valleys and mountains. The people here have a strong sense of vengeance, so they construct "stone nests" made of stones as a refuge from enemies. These "stone nests" are over ten zhang high, with some as short as five or six zhang, with each layer standing one zhang high, separated by wooden planks. The base is only three or four steps square, and the top of the "stone nest" is two or three steps wide, giving it a pagoda-like appearance. There is a small door on the bottom level, and it must be closed at night to deter thieves. This country has more than twenty thousand households, who all heed the king's authority. The Jialiang Yi tribe follows their chief, and those who commit serious crimes face execution, while those guilty of minor offenses are fined a cow. They are all nimble and adept at swordsmanship. They wear lacquered leather armor, use bows that are six feet long, and bowstrings made of bamboo. They practice polyandry, marrying multiple wives and even sisters-in-law, and if a brother dies, the surviving brother will marry the widow. They enjoy singing and dancing, playing drums and flutes. Upon someone's death, they do not don mourning attire. Instead, they clean the body, dress it in clothes, cover it with lacquered leather armor, and then with animal skins. The children refrain from crying, instead donning armor and performing sword dances, shouting, "My father was taken by spirits, and I will avenge him by slaying them!" Other relatives cry three times before falling silent. Women must cry with their faces covered. After slaughtering a cow at home and receiving pig wine from relatives and friends, they all gather to feast before burying the deceased. Ten years later, they conduct a grand burial, attended by relatives and friends, where dozens of horses may be sacrificed. They also honor their ancestors by establishing ancestral shrines. They wear round leather hats, resembling bowls, and some even don face masks. The majority of their clothing is crafted from fur, and their shoes are crafted from whole cowhide. They adorn themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. Both the king and the chief don gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower, three inches in diameter, hanging at their chests. The region is elevated, boasting a cool climate with frequent winds and scarce rainfall. The soil is well-suited for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains are rich in gold and silver mines and home to many white pheasants. The rivers teem with fine fish, measuring four feet long and adorned with delicate scales.
The people's way of life in this neighboring land is truly unique! From their living arrangements to funeral customs, they are brimming with a unique cultural flavor. They seek vengeance, yet hold loyalty dear; they live a simple life, yet know how to relish the joys of song and dance. This land fosters a civilization that is uniquely isolated from the outside world.
In the year 608 AD, in the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, their king sent eight people to the court to pay tribute.
The following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty people from the Jialiang Yi tribe to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but due to the treacherous and impassable routes, they requested the opening of a mountain road for easier tribute. Emperor Yang of Sui deemed it too troublesome and declined the request.
There is a river on the boundary of the Jialiang Yi territory, about sixty to seventy zhang wide; on the side of the neighboring land, there is a river over one hundred zhang wide, both flowing south, and they used animal skins to make boats to cross the river.
To the south of this neighboring land lies a tribe known as Baoyuan Yi, with customs similar to those of the Jialiang Yi. To the west of the neighboring land is a matriarchal society. To the northeast of the neighboring land, a continuous range of mountains stretches for thousands of miles, all the way to the Tangut region. In the mountains, there are Qiang tribal communities: Daxiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Dahua, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nao, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a single chief to unify them. Their customs are similar to the Tangut people; some are subjugated by the Tuyuhun, and some are dependent on the neighboring land. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, these Qiang tribal communities all came to the court to pay tribute. The court set up several governorates along the southwestern border to oversee these tribes from a distance.
The history books say: since ancient times, in order to develop remote areas and establish connections with the border regions, there must be visionary emperors and enterprising ministers. Zhang Qian had already paved the way to the Western Regions, and Ban Chao later took up arms to further the cause of the Western Regions. Some of them used treasures to befriend various countries in the Western Regions, while others used force to intimidate them, sacrificing their lives and risking great dangers in order to gain short-term glory. All of this is because the emperor valued the development of the border regions, and the ministers were willing to risk everything. Therefore, it can be said that what the people above like, the people below will be more enthusiastic about.
Emperor Yang of Sui was known for his extravagance, and his grand plans even surpassed those of the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju presented the "Record of the Western Regions" to cater to his thoughts, so Emperor Yang of Sui personally led the expedition to Yumenguan, established Yiwu, Qie Mo, and other places, leading to widespread discontent and suffering in the regions west of Guanzhong. If the northern nomadic tribes were not a threat, and good news arrived from the eastern tribes, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely intensify the construction of the garrison forts at Luntai, build the city walls of Wulei, and try to obtain treasures from the Daqin Empire and exotic goods from Tiaozhi for transport. Wise emperors of ancient times maintained their territories within a five-thousand-li radius, focused on stabilizing the Central Plains region, and never wasted their energy in remote and desolate places. Is it due to a lack of prestige or insufficient respect for their virtues? No! They simply sought to prevent trivial pursuits from undermining meaningful efforts. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty garrisoned troops in the Five Ridges, while the Han Dynasty oversaw the three borders, leading to either widespread famine or a drastic population decline. The Sui Dynasty, relying on its strong power, ultimately found itself in dire straits in the Qinghai region. All of this is because the rulers themselves lost their direction, resulting in suffering for the common people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could carefully weigh the pros and cons of this situation, steadfastly refuse the call to campaign against the Western Regions, return the thousand-li steed, and not insist on tribute from the White Wolf, then even without a victory in Liaodong, how could the tragedy at Jiangdu have occurred?
