Let's first talk about the Di tribe. They are a branch of the western Yi tribes, calling themselves the White Horse. Since the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, they have had their own leaders, handed down through the generations. That's why the poetry says, "from the Di and Qiang, none dare to defy the king," which shows their significant power. From the Qin and Han dynasties onwards, the Di tribe mainly resided south of Qishan and Longshan, west of the Hanshui River, and elected their own leaders. During Emperor Wu of Han's reign, the generals Guo Chang and Wei Guang were sent to defeat them, and their territory was designated Wudu Commandery. Extending from the Qianshui River to the Wei River and into the Ba and Shu regions, the Di tribe had a large population and many branches; some were known as the White Di, others as the Old Di, with each branch having its own leaders and kings, even receiving rewards from the Central Plains dynasties. During the Jian'an era of the Han dynasty, there was a tribal leader named Yang Teng, who was both a brilliant strategist and a skilled warrior, leading his people to settle in Chouchi, an area of about one hundred hectares that became his stronghold. Surrounded by mountains on all sides, with treacherous terrain rising over seven li, winding mountain paths that twisted and turned with thirty-six bends, and springs on the mountain used for making salt. Yang Teng had many descendants, and the Wei kingdom honored him with the title "Hundred Hectare Di King." His grandson, Yang Feilong, grew in power and was appointed General Who Pacifies the West by Emperor Wu of Jin. Unfortunately, Yang Feilong had no sons, so he took his nephew Linghu Maosou in as his son. During the reign of Emperor Hui of Jin, Linghu Maosou declared himself "General Who Supports the State, Righteous King," and all Di tribe tribes supported him as their leader, with many refugees from the Guanzhong region seeking refuge with him. Emperor Min of Jin further appointed him as the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Leftious King.
After the death of Chieftain Linghu Mao, his son Linghu Nandi succeeded him, and he and his brother Linghu Jiantou oversaw different tribes. Linghu Nandi took the title of Left Xian Wang and stationed himself in Xiabian; Linghu Jiantou took the title of Right Xian Wang and stationed himself in Hechi. After Linghu Nandi's death, his son Linghu Yi assumed power, taking the titles of Envoy with Imperial Authority and General Longxiang, Left Xian Wang of Xiabian, and he also conferred the title of Envoy with Imperial Authority, Champion General, Right Xian Wang, and Duke of Hechi upon Linghu Jiantou's son Linghu Pan. They later aligned themselves with the Jin Dynasty, which appointed Linghu Yi as General of the Southern Expedition.
Three years later, Linghu Yi's cousin Linghu Chu killed Linghu Yi, took control of his military forces, and became Duke of Qiuqi, and sought refuge with Shi Hu, who later acknowledged him as a vassal of the Jin Dynasty. In the tenth year of the Yonghe era, the Jin Dynasty reappointed Linghu Chu as Duke of Tianshui. In the eleventh year of the Yonghe era, Linghu Yi's brother Linghu Songnu incited his brother-in-law Liang Sanwang to kill Linghu Chu during his service. Linghu Chu's son Linghu Guo led his followers to kill Liang Sanwang and Linghu Songnu, and he reclaimed the title of Duke of Qiuqi. Huan Wen recommended Linghu Guo as Governor of Qinzhou, while his son Linghu An was appointed Prefect of Wudu.
In the twelfth year of Yonghe, Linghu Hou, the uncle of Linghu Guo, killed Linghu Guo and became the Duke of Chouchi. Linghu Guo's son, Linghu An, betrayed Fu Sheng, killed Fu Jun, and declared himself a vassal of the Jin Dynasty. After Linghu An's death, his son Linghu Shi declared himself the Duke of Chouchi. In the third year of Jintaihe, the Jin Dynasty appointed Linghu Shi as the Governor of Qinzhou, and his brother Linghu Tong as the Prefect of Wudu. After Linghu Shi's death, Linghu Tong overthrew Linghu Zuan, Linghu Shi's son, and became the Duke of Chouchi himself. Linghu Tong, also known as Linghu De, later gathered a group of people, killed Linghu Tong, declared himself the Duke of Chouchi, and sent envoys to Emperor Jianwen, requesting to be appointed as the Governor of Qinzhou.
In the year 371 AD, Fu Jian sent Yang An to defeat Zuan, took over Zuan's territory, and relocated the local populace to Guanzhong, leaving behind a vast expanse of empty land covering several hundred hectares. After Song Nu's death, his two sons Fonu and Fogou fled to Fu Jian. Fu Jian married his daughter to Fonu's son Ding and appointed him as a Minister and Military General. Later, after Fu Jian's defeat, the Guanzhong region fell into chaos, and Ding remained fiercely loyal to Fu Jian. After Fu Jian's death, Ding led everyone to escape to Longyou.
He relocated his base to Licheng, 120 miles away from the original location, and constructed a granary on the vast empty land. He also recruited many people from different ethnic groups, likely over a thousand households, and proclaimed himself the Dragon Cavalry General and the Duke of Chouchi, declaring allegiance to the Jin Dynasty. Emperor Xiaowu of Jin also acknowledged his titles and later appointed him as the Governor of Qinzhou. By the year 394 AD, he had firmly established control over Qinzhou and declared himself King of Longxi. Tragically, he was later betrayed and killed by Qifu Gangui, leaving no sons behind.
The son of Fonu, Fugou, was previously a regent responsible for guarding Chouchi. Later, he took over full power and proclaimed himself the General of the West, the Inspector of Qinzhou, and the Prince of Chouchi. After his death, he was posthumously granted the title of Martial King. He divided the Di and Qiang ethnic groups into twenty battalions, stationed in different locations, and ceased to establish commanderies and counties. Consequently, Hanzhong came under his control, and he paid homage to the Jin Dynasty. During the Tianxing period, he dispatched envoys to the Jin Dynasty to pay tribute, and the Jin Emperor appointed him as the Grand General of the South and the King of Chouchi. However, due to Yao Xing's interference, he was unable to send envoys for tribute every year. Fugou also appointed his nephew as the General of the South and the Inspector of Liangzhou, entrusting him with the defense of Hanzhong.
In the Yongchu era under Liu Yu, Fugou was appointed as the King of Wudu. After Fugou's death, he was privately honored with the posthumous title of King Huiwen. His son Xuan succeeded him, known for his courtesy name Huangmei, and was appointed as the General of the West, the Governor of the Palace, the Inspector of Qinzhou, and the King of Wudu. Although he acknowledged Liu Yilong's authority, he continued to use the Yongxi era of the Jin Dynasty before eventually adopting Liu Yilong's Yuanjia era. Initially, Fugou had told Xuan, "I am old and will remain a subject of the Jin Dynasty for the rest of my days. You must serve the Emperor of the Song Dynasty well." Therefore, Xuan always followed his father's last words. Xuan was adept at interacting with scholars and was deeply loved by the old ministers.
In 430 AD, Emperor Wen of the Song Dynasty appointed Xuan as the Grand General of the South, Commander, Inspector of Liangzhou, and King of Southern Qin. Xuan submitted a petition requesting the same privileges as the court's internal vassals, which Emperor Wen granted.
Xuan died, and people privately conferred upon him the posthumous title of King Xiaozhao. His son Baozong inherited the throne. Just before his death, Xuan told his brother Nandan, "The situation is still unstable now. You need to appease the people well. Baozong is still young and inexperienced. I entrust the affairs of the country to you. Make sure you don't squander our ancestors' achievements!" Nandan declined, saying that Baozong should be enthroned, and he would assist him. Baozong then ascended the throne, and Nandan's wife, Yao, urged him to install their eldest son as king rather than allowing a child to take charge. Nandan followed his wife's advice, deposed Baozong from the throne, took the throne himself, and pledged allegiance to Liu Yilong. Nandan appointed Baozong as General of Zhen Nan, stationed at Shichang, and his second son as General of Zhen Dong and Governor of Qinzhou, defending Shangyue. Later, Baozong conspired to attack Nandan, but his plot was uncovered, leading to his defeat. Previously, exiles from various places heard that the region of Chouchi was prosperous and flocked there. Among them were two exiles, Xumu Zhi and Hao Dan Zhi, who sought refuge with Nandan and adopted the surname Sima. Xumu Zhi called himself Feilong, and Dan Zhi called himself Kang Zhi, claiming to be distant relatives of the Jin imperial family. Later, Kang Zhi was killed. At that time, Zhen Fa Hu, the governor of Liangzhou under Liu Yilong, governed poorly, so Liu Yilong appointed Xiao Sihua as his replacement. Before Xiao Sihua arrived, Nandan launched an attack on Liangzhou, captured Baima, and seized control of the Hanzhong area. Xiao Sihua then sent his Sima, Xiao Chengzhi, to lead the forces in quelling the rebellion. They quickly pacified Liangzhou and pledged allegiance to Liu Yilong.
Later, Nandan freed Baozong and assigned him to defend Dongting. Baozong returned to the capital with his brother Baoxian, and Emperor Wen of Song named Baozong the General of the South, Governor of Qinzhou, and King of Wudu, and allowed him to marry a princess; Baoxian was appointed as the General Who Defends the West and Duke of Jinshou. After that, Emperor Wen of Song sent the Grand Minister of Ceremonies Cui Ze to appoint Nandan as the General of the South, holding the rank equivalent to the Three Departments, Commander of the Western Qiang, Governor of Qin's Two Provinces, and King of Southern Qin. Nandan later proclaimed himself King of Great Qin, changed the era name to Jianyi, crowned his wife as queen, and his son as crown prince, setting up officials and imitating the court's system. However, he continued to send tribute to Liu Yilong. Soon, a severe drought struck his country, and various disasters occurred, leading to his demotion to King of Wudu. In the early years of Taiyan, Nandan was stationed in Shanggui, and Emperor Wen of Song dispatched General Cheqi, King of Leping Liu Pi, and others to lead troops from Hexi, Gaoping, and other areas against Shanggui, also issuing an edict commanding Nandan, who accepted the edict and continued to guard Shanggui.
Now, let's talk about the ambitious Qiu Chi Kingdom to the south; they sought to expand their territory at our expense. They first attacked Yilong's Yizhou from Shu, then Feicheng, and subsequently went to attack Baxi, capturing over seven thousand households of Weizhou's people and taking them back to Qiu Chi as hostages. Naturally, Emperor Yilong was furious and immediately dispatched General Pei Fangming to lead troops to attack. As a result, the leader of Qiu Chi, Nandan, couldn't hold off Pei Fangming's forces, abandoned his kingdom of Qiu Chi, and fled to Shanggui with over a thousand cavalry. Our emperor quickly dispatched Prince Chen of Zhongshan to greet Nandan and escort him to the temporary palace. After Pei Fangming captured Qiu Chi, he left his brother Baochi to defend the city, but Duke Qijian of Hejian successfully defeated Baochi.
Earlier, the court assigned Bao Zong to Shanggui, and later had him assigned to Luogu, effectively restoring his original fiefdom. However, his younger brother Wende had already secretly defected to the Di tribe and incited Bao Zong to rebel. After the plot was exposed, Hejian Gong Qi captured Bao Zong and escorted him to the capital, where the emperor ordered him to be executed. The Di and Qiang people proclaimed Wende as their leader and set up camp at the muddy waters. Wende declared himself General of the Western Expedition, Governor of the provinces of Qin, He, and Liang, Lord of Chouchi, and even sought assistance from Yilong. Yilong subsequently appointed Wende as King of Wudu and sent Deputy General Fang Liang and others to assist him. However, Hejian Gong Qi launched a counterattack and captured Fang Liang. Wende had no choice but to flee to Jialu to hold his ground, and at this time, many Di people from Wudu and Yinxing also joined him. The court then sent Huaiyang Gong Pibaozi to lead troops to suppress them, but Wende managed to flee to Hanzhong, taking his wife, children, followers, and supplies along with him. In the end, Bao Zong's wife, who was a princess herself, was escorted to the capital and executed.
From the beginning, the princess had urged Bao Zong to rebel. When asked if it was right to betray her own country, the princess replied, "According to the rules of etiquette and law, a woman should prosper with her husband after marriage. If I can establish a career
During the Zhengguang period, the Right Minister of the Ministry of Works, Zhang Puhui, was ordered to go to the provinces of Nanqin and Dongyi to deliver taxes. Zhang Puhui requested Gong Xi to accompany him. When they arrived in Nanqin, due to a rebellion by the local Di tribe, they were unable to move forward, so Zhang Puhui first sent Gong Xi to appease the Di tribe. The Governor of Dongyi Province, Wei Zijian, considered Gong Xi cunning and treacherous, so he secretly sent agents to investigate and found out that Gong Xi was indeed plotting a rebellion. Wei Zijian immediately reported this to Zhang Puhui and requested Gong Xi's arrest. Zhang Puhui quickly pursued him, but Gong Xi refused to surrender and fled to Hanzhong. Zhang Puhui submitted a report on this matter, and despite Gong Xi's bribery of many officials, he was ultimately granted amnesty. Later, he was appointed as a nominal general and commander together with Commander Yuan Zhi to defend Qizhou, but was captured by Qin bandits and died in Qinzhou.
After Wende's reign, he departed from Hanzhong, leading his forces to reclaim the regions of Yinpings and Wuxing. Later, he was killed by Liu Yixuan, the Governor of Jingzhou.
After Bao Zong's capture, his son Yuan He escaped to Liu Yilong and was appointed as the governor of the two counties of Wudu and Baishui. Yuan He surrendered the city he governed, and Emperor Gaozong was pleased, appointing him as the Grand General of the South and King of Wudu, and relocating him to the capital. Yuan He's uncle Seng Si proclaimed himself King of Wudu in Jialu. After Seng Si's death, his brother Wenguo proclaimed himself King of Wuxing and sent envoys to the court to pledge allegiance. Emperor Xianzu appointed Wenguo as the General of Wuxing. However, Wenguo soon rebelled again.
In the early years of Emperor Gaozu's reign, General Pi Huanshi attacked the Jia Lu stronghold, successfully breaching it and executing Wendu. Wendu's younger brother Hong, nicknamed "Mouse," was always referred to by this nickname because he had offended the taboo of the emperor's temple. Mouse proclaimed himself the King of Wuxing, sending envoys with apologies and local tributes. Emperor Gaozu accepted his allegiance. Mouse also sent his son Gounu to serve the emperor at court. Later, Mouse was granted the titles of Governor, Inspector of Nanjin Province, General of the West, Colonel of the Western Barbarians, and King of Wudu. After Mouse's death, his cousin succeeded him, and Emperor Gaozu conferred Mouse's titles upon him.
It is said that this Mouse Ziji initially served as the Governor of Baishui, but somehow he managed to rise from obscurity and climb the ranks, first becoming General of the West and then King of Wudu. Later, when he went to the capital to meet the emperor, his official status skyrocketed, and he held titles such as Governor, Inspector of Nanjin Province, Grand General of Annan, Commander of the Southern Barbarians, Marquis of Hanzhong, and King of Wuxing. The emperor also rewarded him with many gifts, such as carriages, horses, banners, brocade, and silk, truly enjoying boundless glory. Before long, he returned to Wuxing, was promoted again, and became General of the Southern Town, overseeing the military affairs across five provinces, amassing significant power.
Unfortunately, the prosperity was short-lived. The general Yang Lingzhen of Qiu Chi defeated Wuxing, and Mouse Ziji had no choice but to surrender to the opposing general Xiao Ze. In the early years of Jingming, Mouse Ziji surrendered to the court again, regaining his titles, and returned to Wuxing to reign as its king. After his death, his son Shaoxian inherited his throne and also held the titles of Governor, Inspector of Nanjin Province, General of the Captured Troops, Duke of Hanzhong, and King of Wuxing. The court posthumously honored his father, Ziji, as Grand General of the Chariots and Cavalry, granting him a respectable legacy in death.
However, Shao Xian was still a child, so the management of political affairs was handed over to his two uncles, Ji Qi and Ji Yi, to manage. At this time, Xiahou Daoqian surrendered Han Zhong to the court, only to be besieged by the troops led by Yin Tianbao, the commander of the White Horse Garrison of the Liang Dynasty. Daoqian sought help from Ji Qi and Ji Yi, but these two were only interested in the stability of the border and refused to send troops to assist. Only Ji Lang, Ji Qi's younger brother, sought to gain merit and led troops to defeat Yin Tianbao, thus securing Hanchuan, a significant achievement for Ji Lang! Ji Yi, seeing that the Liang Dynasty had established a foothold in Yizhou, feared that Wuxing, this border fiefdom, would soon fall. He incited the local Di tribes to support Shao Xian's claim to kingship, while he and Ji Qi also proclaimed themselves kings and sought the support of Xiao Yan as a backer.
General Xing Luan of Anxi sent General Fu Shuyan to attack Wuxing, and soon captured it, capturing Shao Xian and sending him to the capital. Thus, the kingdom of Wuxing was destroyed. The court renamed Wuxing as Wuxing Town and later changed it to Dong Yizhou. In the following years, several town generals, Tang Fale, governors Du Zuan and Xing Bao, lost the favor of the Di tribes due to poor governance. As a result, powerful Di leaders like Chou Shizhu united in rebellion, creating significant problems for the court and chaos along the southwestern border.
During the Zhengguang period, the court appointed Wei Zijian as governor, and he employed benevolence and righteousness to win over the local populace. The social climate improved significantly, and people from near and far submitted to the court, bringing peace akin to that of the inland regions. Later, Tang Yong succeeded Zijian as governor, but shortly thereafter, the Di tribes revolted once more. Tang Yong abandoned the city and escaped, and Wuxing once again came under the control of the Di tribes. Afterwards, Shao Xian fled back to Wuxing and proclaimed himself king once more.
The Tuyuhun people were originally descendants of the Xianbei people from Liaodong who crossed the Tuhai River back home. Tuhai, also referred to as Yiluo Han, had two sons; the elder son was Tuyuhun and the younger son was Ruoluohui. While Tuhai was alive, he allocated seven hundred households to Tuyuhun. Later, the two herds of horses belonging to Tuyuhun and Ruoluohui got into a fight, with the horses injuring one another. Ruoluohui was very angry and sent someone to tell Tuyuhun, "When our father was alive, he divided the tribe between you two brothers. Why can't you stay further apart and allow the horses to fight like this?" Tuyuhun replied, "Horses are just livestock; they eat grass and drink water. When spring comes, they are more likely to fight. The horses fight, but you blame it on people; that’s really making a mountain out of a molehill! How about this, I’ll leave right now and go far away." Ruoluohui regretted it and sent the clan elders and the chief historian to chase after Tuyuhun, wanting to keep him. Tuyuhun said, "Since our ancestors have established achievements in the Liaodong region, the fortune teller said when my father was alive that he would have two sons who would both prosper, and their descendants would thrive. I come from humble origins. I have no right to sit on equal footing with my brother. Now, because of the horses fighting, this is probably fate as well. Let me try driving the horses eastward; if the horses head east on their own, I’ll follow."
So, Tuyuhun ordered his men to drive the herd of horses eastward, but after a few hundred steps, the horses let out mournful cries and bolted westward, the sound was like a mountain collapsing and the earth splitting. This happened over a dozen times; each time they were driven, they bolted westward. Qina Lou had no choice but to kneel and say, "Khan, this is no longer something that can be controlled by human power." Tuyuhun said to his people, "Both my brother Yueluo Hui's descendants will prosper; my brother's descendants will continue until great-grandchildren, probably for more than a hundred years, while my descendants and I will truly thrive." So, Tuyuhun led his people to migrate westward, arriving at the foot of the Yin Mountains, and later passing through the Long Mountains. Yueluo Hui often thought of Tuyuhun and composed the "Agan Song," referring to his brother A Yu. After the descendants of Tuyuhun rose to become kings and emperors, they used this song as a major piece played by orchestras. Tuyuhun eventually migrated to the Shanglong region, settling between Fohan and Gansong, bordering Angcheng and Longhe to the south, and from Taoshui southwest to Bailan for thousands of miles. The land was abundant in water and grass, so they pitched tents and lived off meat and dairy products. Various ethnic groups in the northwest referred to them as Achairu.
The Tuyuhun chieftain died, leaving behind sixty sons. The eldest, Tuyan, was tall and strong, standing a full seven feet eight inches tall. He was brave and fierce, but he had a hot temper, and was later assassinated by the Qiang chieftain Jiang Cong of Angcheng. With the sword still stuck in his body, he called his son Yeyan and told his general Gebani, "I am not going to make it. Bury the sword with me in my coffin, and quickly go guard Bailan. The terrain there is dangerous, and the locals are weak and easy to control. Yeyan is still young, and if I hand over the throne to someone else, it might be hard to manage for a while. I’m entrusting Yeyan to you now; you need to help him with all your heart. As long as my son can successfully inherit the throne, I will die without regret!" With that, he pulled out the sword and took his own life, leaving behind twelve sons.
Yeyan was brave and decisive from a young age. At the age of ten, he made a straw effigy of Jiang Cong and shot it every morning. If he hit it, he would cry out and wail. His mother said, "All the enemy generals have been killed; why do you torture yourself like this every day when you are still so young?" Yeyan cried uncontrollably and said, "I know this is useless, but I can't forget this hatred in my heart!" He was especially filial; when his mother was sick and hadn’t eaten for three days, Yeyan also didn't eat for three days. Yeyan also loved to read and claimed to be a descendant of his great-great-grandfather Yiluo Han (Changli Gong), referring to himself as a grandson. According to the rules of the "Book of Rites," a grandson can use his grandfather's name as his surname, so he took "Tuyuhun" as his surname.
After Ye Yan's death, his son Sui Xi took the throne. Sui Xi was honest and cautious, but his three younger brothers misused their power and engaged in corrupt governance. Sui Xi was powerless to stop them and was eventually assassinated by a group of generals. Overcome with grief and unable to attend to state matters, he appointed his son Shi Lian as the crown prince, bestowing upon him the name "Mo Helang," meaning "father." Sui Xi also died from excessive grief. After Shi Lian ascended to the throne, he refrained from any entertainment due to his longing for his father. Fifteen years later, Shi Lian also died, and his brother Shi Pi succeeded him to the throne. After Shi Pi's death, his son Shu Luogan and others were still young, so his brother Wu Heti succeeded to the throne, and even married Shu Luogan's mother, fathering two sons, Mu Gui and Li Yan. Wu Heti, also referred to as Dachai, died, and Shu Luogan succeeded him, declaring himself the General of Chariots and Cavalry during the Yixi period of the Jin Dynasty. After Shu Luogan's death, his brother A Chai succeeded him to the throne, proclaiming himself the General of Valiant Cavalry and the Governor of Shazhou. In their tribe, there were extensive stretches of yellow sand, hundreds of miles in circumference, where nothing grew, which is why it was named "Shazhou."
Ah Chai, this fellow, has merged all the Qiangdi tribes and his territory spans several thousand miles—he was definitely a formidable power! One day, while hunting in the Xiqiang Mountains, he saw the source of the Dian River and asked his officials, “What is the name of this water flowing east? Which county does it flow from and into which river?” His chief historian, Zeng He, replied, “This river passes through Qiu Chi, flows through Jin Shou, comes out of Tang Qu, and is called the Dian River. When it reaches Ba Jun, it merges into the Yangtze River, eventually flowing to Guangling and finally into the sea.” After hearing this, Ah Chai sighed, “Even water knows where it belongs. Although I am just a small border state, do I not have a place to belong?” So he sent someone to contact Liu Yifu, presenting local specialties, and Liu Yifu appointed him as the Duke of Jiaohe. Before he could officially receive the title, Liu Yilong promoted him again in the third year of the Yuanjia era. Just as he was about to send tribute again, Ah Chai suddenly fell ill and died. Before he died, he gathered his sons and instructed them, “My father, the General of Chariots and Cavalry, abandoned his son Qian and entrusted the important matters to me. How could I disregard my father's wishes in favor of my eldest son Wei? I want my younger brother Mu Wei to carry on my legacy!” Ah Chai had twenty sons, and Wei was the eldest.
Ah Chai then told his sons, “Each of you take an arrow and break it.” After saying this, he called his younger brother Mu Liyan over: “You take an arrow and break it.” Mu Liyan easily broke it. Ah Chai then said, “Now take nineteen arrows and try to break them.” No matter how hard Mu Liyan tried, he couldn’t break them. Ah Chai said, “Do you understand? A single arrow is easy to break, but many arrows together are hard to break. Only by working together can we protect the nation.” After saying these words, Ah Chai died. His nephew Mu Wei ascended to the throne.
Before Ah Chai passed away, the envoy sent by Liu Yilong had not yet arrived. Mu Gui then contacted Liu Yilong and was appointed as the Duke of Longxi. Mu Gui recruited the displaced people from the Qin and Liang provinces, as well as various ethnic groups, including the Qiang and Rong, totaling five to six hundred clans. He established connections with Shu Han in the south and with Liangzhou and the Helian tribe in the north, gradually expanding his influence.
During the reign of Emperor Yuan, Mu Gui sent his attendant Xie Daning back with a memorial to the Emperor, and also escorted the captured Helian Ding to the capital.
The Emperor was pleased and sent an envoy to confer higher titles upon him, appointing Mu Gui as Grand General and King of Western Qin.
Mu Gui expressed his gratitude in a memorial, saying, "I, your humble servant, am truly of mediocre ability and of little significance, but I have endeavored to be loyal. I successfully captured the rebel Helian Ding and brought news of victory to the royal court. Although my title is elevated, my territory has not expanded, and the rewards are insufficient. I hope Your Majesty will understand my difficulties and intentions. I have fought against the enemy forces before, and the border residents were attacked and plundered by bandits, fleeing to the east. Now that your benevolent rule extends across the realm, the people live in peace and prosperity. I yearn to return to my hometown. The families of Fo Rilian, Ku Luehan, and Zhang Hua, who are elderly, sick, or disabled, are still stranded there. Their homes are destroyed and their loved ones lost, which evokes deep sympathy. I hope that you can issue an order for their return, extending the Emperor’s grace to remote areas, so that the living may express their gratitude and the deceased may find peace."
The emperor summoned the ministers to discuss the handling of the King of Western Qin. General Sun Song and 279 scholars and doctors discussed together, saying: "Previously, the government considered the King of Western Qin to be a monarch of a remote region, not within the jurisdiction of the court. He was welcomed when he came to pay tribute, and there was no obstruction when he left. Now, the emperor's reputation has spread far and wide, and the King of Western Qin admires the emperor's benevolence and fears his authority, so he submits and requests a title from the court. It is widely believed that in ancient times, the monarchs of remote regions, even if they had vast land and numerous people, their titles would not be comparable to those in the Central Plains. However, the emperor has been particularly generous to the King of Western Qin, surpassing the usual standards, and even provided him with luxurious carriages and horses, with standards equivalent to those of the Central Plains. Regarding the amount of silk rewards, past texts do not specify and should be determined according to the specific circumstances of the time. Since the Han and Wei dynasties, there have been precedents of appeasement and acceptance of remote regions by the court. Empress Dowager Lu once gave the Xiongnu Chanyu two imperial carriages and eight horses, and in return, the Chanyu gifted a thousand horses; later, when the Xiongnu sent silk as a gift, it was only a few hundred pieces; Chanyu Huhanye submitted and personally visited the emperor, only then was he rewarded with tens of thousands of pieces of silk. Now, if the King of Western Qin asserts that his land does not produce silk, he should directly request it from the court, rather than claiming 'there are insufficient resources for rewards'. When the Zhou dynasty was weak, Duke Huan of Qi was able to pacify the world, only accepting sacrificial meat and not receiving additional land; after Duke Wen of Jin defeated the Chu state, he only accepted a piece of land in Nanyang as a temporary residence. The land that the King of Western Qin acquired was originally taken by him. The people of Western Qin often invade Qinzhou and Liangzhou, without having any merit for expanding the territory, yet they were granted the title of an upper country, governing the four regions of Qinzhou, Liangzhou, Hezhou, and Shazhou, and still claim 'the land has not increased'. Comparing the emperor to the weak Zhou dynasty and himself to the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period, how can such an insatiable mentality ever be satisfied? The King of Western Qin genuinely respects the court, and examining his true intentions, he definitely would not act in such a way. This may be due to the incompetence of those around him, which has led to this outcome. An investigation into the stolen goods taken by the bandits fleeing Western Qin is warranted; all of which are in Puban. Now that the King of Western Qin has surrendered, the world is at peace, and we are all one family across the seas, he can order Qinzhou to send these bandits to the capital and then send them back. The King of Western Qin requested three monks, who were envoys of Western Qin before, to appear before the court. After the fall of Western Qin, they became subjects of the court and should not be granted their request.
No text was provided for translation.
The emperor said, "The opinions of the ministers are not wrong. The territories of Jincheng, Fuhan, Longxi, and others that the King of Western Qin occupied were taken by him himself, and I granted them to him; this was originally a feudal land grant, so why should we say that the land has increased? Since the King of Western Qin has expressed loyalty, the amount of silk and cloth he receives will naturally increase with the frequency of the envoys, not just a single piece of cloth." From then on, the tribute that Mu Kui offered decreased, and he reestablished contact with Liu Yilong, who conferred upon him the title of King of Longxi.
In the year 433, Mu Kui died, and his brother Mu Liyan succeeded him. The court sent envoys to posthumously confer the title of King Hui upon Mu Kui. Later, the court appointed Mu Liyan as the Grand General of the West and Minister of State Affairs, and changed his title to King of Xiping; Mu Kui's son Mu Yuanxu was appointed as the General of the Guard. At that time, Mu Liyan was secretly colluding with Liu Yilong of the Song dynasty, who conferred upon him the title of King of Henan.
Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Tao, wanted to conquer Liangzhou, and Mu Liyan was frightened and fled into the desert with his subordinates. Given that Mu Liyan's brother had once achieved great merit by capturing Helian Ding, Emperor Taiwu sent envoys to persuade him, and only then did Mu Liyan return. Later, Mu Liyan sent envoys to apologize; after his memorial was submitted, the emperor issued an edict commending him.
However, Mu Liyan's brother's son, Mu Weidai, worried Mu Liyan would harm him, conspired with the envoys to return to court. He was discovered by Mu Liyan and killed. Mu Weidai's brother Mu Chilian and seven others escaped back to the capital and requested the court to send troops against Mu Liyan. Emperor Taiwu conferred the title of King of Guiyi on Mu Chilian and ordered Prince Jin, Tuoba Fuluo, to lead an army against Mu Liyan.
The military forces reached Damu Bridge, and Muli Yan's brother's son, Mu Shiyin, fled to Hexi. Tuoba Fuluo sent troops to pursue and killed more than five thousand people. Muli Yan fled to Bailan. At this time, Muli Yan's cousin, Mu Funian, Chief Jili, and Bu Dachonge led more than thirteen thousand people to surrender to the court. Later, the court sent General Xingxi and King Gaoliang Na Qian to Bailan to attack Muli Yan. Muli Yan then fled to the Kingdom of Yutian, where he also killed the king of Yutian, leading to the deaths of tens of thousands.
He then marched south to attack the Kingdom of Jibin. He also sent envoys to seek support from Liu Yilong of the Song Dynasty, presenting gifts such as Wuman hats, gold wine vessels from the Kingdom of Women, and gold bracelets from the Hu King. Liu Yilong rewarded him with a chariot as a reward. Seven years later, Muli Yan finally returned to his original territory.
After Muli Yan's death, his son, Shiyin, inherited his position and established cities in Fuluochuan, living a lifestyle that imitated that of the emperor. Shiyin also regularly paid tribute to the court, accepted the imperial authority's calendar, and was later appointed as the King of Henan by Liu Yilong. Subsequently, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei dispatched envoys to bestow upon him the title of Grand General of the West, Inspector of Shazhou, and King of Xiping.
Shi Yin relied on his remote location, disregarded the court somewhat, secretly contacted Liu Yu, sent him four-horned sheep and good horses, and Liu Yu promoted him. During the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Cao An, the Marquis of Dingyang, reported that Shi Yin was hiding in Bailan with a lot of gold, silver, treasures, cattle, sheep, and horses. If troops were sent to attack, they would definitely achieve a decisive victory. Everyone thought that the late emperor was upset by the discord among Shi Yin and his brothers, so he sent Prince Jin and King Gaoliang to attack him, but both attempts failed. Although Shi Yin had fled, his army was exhausted. He was currently hiding in Bailan, not invading the border or causing trouble for the court, so there was no need for a large-scale operation. If envoys were sent to appease him, he would likely submit without resistance, thus resolving the issue effortlessly. The emperor only needed to control the remote areas; there was no need to destroy his state and seize his land.
Cao An said: "I used to be a garrison commander in Jiaohe, which is very close to his location, and I know his situation well. If we divide our troops to encircle from both wings, Shi Yin will definitely flee to the Nanshan Mountains. Within ten days, the forage for his cattle and horses will be depleted, and his army will surely be defeated, allowing us to capture him in one fell swoop!" The emperor accepted his suggestion and ordered Prince Yangping Xin Cheng, Prince Jian'an Mu Liu, and others to attack from the south, while Duke of Nanjun Li Hui, Grand Secretary Gong Sun Ba, and Cao An attacked from the north. Shi Yin fled to the Nanshan Mountains, and the troops from all routes crossed the Yellow River in pursuit. However, many soldiers fell ill, and the generals discussed that the enemy had already fled far away, and our army had regained its strength. It would be challenging to achieve victory with exhausted and sick soldiers. Isn't this somewhat excessive? Everyone agreed, so they withdrew, capturing only over two hundred thousand camels and horses.
In the summer, Emperor Xianzu ordered Wang Changsun of Shangdang to lead the troops from various provinces to attack Shiyin. The army reached Mantou Mountain, where Shiyin confronted the army. Changsun led the troops to defeat him, and Shiyin fled overnight. Realizing his mistake, Shiyin began paying tribute to the court again and sent his envoy, Kang Panlong, to express his submission. Emperor Xianzu imprisoned Shiyin and ignored his envoy. Shiyin's tribe faced famine and repeatedly invaded Jiaohé, prompting the court to order General Pingxi, Duke Pi Huanyi of Guangchuan, to lead the troops from Dunhuang, Fuhan, and Gaoping as the vanguard, with Sikong and Wang Changsun of Shangdang serving as Grand Commanders, to attack him. Changsun led the army into Shiyin's territory and set fire to his crops. In fear for his safety, Shiyin sent his son to the military camp to ask for a chance to make amends. Changsun reported the situation to Emperor Xianzu, who, recognizing the soldiers' hard work and accomplishments, issued a decree sternly reprimanding Shiyin and summoned his son to the court. Shiyin sent his son Jin to the court as a hostage, and later, Emperor Xianzu sent Jin back. Shiyin again troubled the border villagers, sending his general Liang Li to guard Taoyang, which fell under the jurisdiction of the Fuhan army. The town commander of Fuhan, Duke Yang Zhongkui of Xijun, wrote a letter to Shiyin scolding him. Shiyin submitted a statement that said, "I returned to my homeland as ordered, so I sent Liang Li to guard Taoyang. If the court doesn’t remember our past ties, then let Taoyang offer tribute with local specialties." He spoke sincerely, and Emperor Xianzu agreed to his request. From then on, Shiyin paid tribute to the court every year.
In the year 585 AD, Shi Yin died, and his son Zi Du Yi Hou succeeded to the title. Zi Du Yi Hou sent his attendant Shi Zhen to offer tributes and formally requested to inherit his father's title. Later, Zi Du Yi Hou attacked Dangchang, but the court issued an edict to stop him and rewarded him with 120 bolts of silk, implying he should turn over a new leaf. He returned all the captives he had previously taken from Dangchang. Zi Du Yi Hou complied with the edict. After Zi Du Yi Hou's death, his son Fu Lian Chou succeeded him. Emperor Gaozu wanted him to come to the capital to pay his respects, but he submitted a petition claiming he was ill, so he built cities and stationed troops in Taoyang and Nihe.
Empress Dowager Wen passed away, and Fu Lian Chou sent someone to report the death. However, his way of mourning was not in accordance with the proper rituals, and officials at court requested to punish him, but Emperor Gaozu did not agree. The ministers believed Fu Lian Chou had shown disrespect to the edict and should not accept his tributes. Emperor Gaozu said, "While he may have been disrespectful in his mourning, it’s customary for subjects to offer local products. If we refuse his tributes, it would sever our relationship with him, and he would have no opportunity to repent." The emperor issued an edict stating, "I am still in mourning and have not yet had the chance to send troops against him, yet he submitted a request to recover the military camps in Taoyang and Nihe. Considering this is a common practice for border generals, I agreed to him. When the troops were sent out, the garrisons in both locations surrendered as soon as they heard the news, capturing over 2,000 prisoners and rescuing more than 900 women. All these prisoners and women could be sent back."
Fu Lianchou then sent his heir He Lutou to the capital to pay his respects. The court treated him exceptionally well, granting Fu Lianchou the titles of Envoy with Special Credentials, Commander of Military Affairs in Xichui Province, General in Charge of the Western Barbarians, Duke of Xihai County, and King of Tuyuhun, along with a full set of flags, seals, and sashes. Later, the court also dispatched Zhang Li, a regular attendant of the imperial court, to deliver a message to Fu Lianchou. Fu Lianchou said to Zhang Li, "In the past, when I was on good terms with Dangchang, they always referred to me as 'Great King,' and I also called myself 'Great King.' Now suddenly calling me 'servant' and sending envoys to constrain me, are you going to send troops to confront me about my intentions?" Zhang Li replied, "You and Dangchang are both vassals of the Wei state, but you have frequently acted in ways that violate your obligations as a vassal. Before your departure, the court ministers believed that if you can acknowledge your mistakes and repent, you could retain your fief; however, if you remain obstinate and unrepentant, disaster will come upon you." After hearing this, Fu Lianchou fell silent. After the death of Emperor Gaozu, Fu Lianchou sent envoys to express his condolences, demonstrating profound sincerity and respect.
Fu Lianchou was running things well internally, with various tributes flowing in continuously. Externally, he had subdued the foreign tribes, and the border regions saw him as powerful and rich. He was also thinking of following the example of the imperial court by establishing official offices and putting on a show of controlling neighboring countries to boast about his power. However, Emperor Shizong criticized him as soon as he took the throne, saying, "I saw your formal report sent from Liangzhou regarding the situation in Dangchang. Liang Miyong, like you, is also a border official, and in terms of national status, you are on equal footing. Yet you called your report 'zhi.' Those officials, due to the laws of the state, are eager to attack him. I’m worried that the long journey might cause trouble and could be used to create discord, so I wanted to share my thoughts with you first. Think it over carefully!" Fu Lianchou quickly submitted a memorial to explain, with sincere intent. Throughout Emperor Shizong's reign, up until the Zhengguang years, yaks, Shu horses, and valuable treasures from the southwest were sent every year.
Later, a man named Mo Zheniansheng rebelled in Qinzhou, blocking the roads in Hexi. In Liangzhou, Wan Yuputi and others joined Mo Zheniansheng and even took Inspector Song Ying captive. Song Ying secretly reached out to Fu Lianchou for help, and Fu Lianchou personally led troops to rescue him, ultimately rescuing Song Ying. After that, communication with the border passes was cut off, and tributes stopped coming.
Fu Lianchou died, and his son Kualyu took over, declaring himself Khan, residing in Fusicheng, located just fifteen miles west of Qinghai. Despite the city walls, he lives outside the city in a tent, moving with the water and grass for grazing. His territory spans three thousand miles east to west and over a thousand miles north to south. The official titles are derived from the Han Dynasty, including Wang Gong, Puyi, Shang Shu, Langjiang, and various generals. Kualyu sports a chignon, adorns himself with pearls, wears a black hat, and sits on a chair crafted from golden lions—quite an imposing figure! He also gave his wife the title of "Kezun," his wife, dressed in a brocade skirt and a magnificent robe, with her hair braided and coiled atop her head, adorned with a golden crown, looks quite exquisite.
Their customs include: men's clothing closely resembles that of the Han people; many wear silk hats, while some wear cloth hats. Women all wear beads and shells, tying up their hair, and the more they wear, the greater their status. Their weapons include bows, knives, armor, and spears. The country lacks fixed taxes; instead, they impose taxes on the wealthy and merchants when funds are needed. Their punishments are severe: those who kill or steal horses are put to death, while other crimes can be compensated for with goods or punished with beatings, depending on their severity. During executions, the prisoner's head is covered with felt, and stones are dropped from above—it's quite a terrifying thought. When parents or siblings die, the wife must remain widowed, just like among the Turks, and the sister-in-law must also observe widowhood. Regarding marriage, those who cannot afford a wedding often resort to eloping with a girl. The deceased are buried, and once the burial is complete, mourning clothes must be discarded. Kualyu is greedy and cruel, showing no mercy; he enjoys hunting and consuming meat and dairy products. They also cultivate crops like barley, corn, and beans; however, the cold climate in the northern region limits them to growing only turnips and barley, leading to a high number of poor people and few wealthy individuals.
Qinghai surrounds over a thousand miles, with some small hills surrounding it. After the winter ice thaws, people will release some fine mares onto these small hills, and when spring comes, they will bring them back. These mares are all pregnant, and the foals born are called "Dragon Horses," each one a good horse. The Tuyuhun once received Persian horses, put them in the sea, and the result was the birth of the Qinghai steed, a horse that can run a thousand miles a day. The region is rich in cattle, horses, and various parrots, as well as abundant copper, iron, and vermilion. Their territory also includes Shanshan and Qiemo. During the Xinghe era, Qi Xianwu became the Prime Minister and welcomed the allegiance of distant tribes. The Rouran tribe also submitted to Great Qi and sent envoys to pay tribute. Xianwu lectured them on various principles and demanded regular tributes. Kuayu (Rouran leader) then sent an envoy named Zhao Tuguzhen, falsely claiming that the Rouran regularly paid tribute and even recommended his sister to the Emperor. The Emperor surprisingly accepted his sister as a concubine! Later, the Emperor sent the Minister of the Interior, Fu Lingzhi, to Rouran as an envoy. Kuayu then proposed a marriage, wanting to marry his daughter to the Emperor of Qi, so the Emperor married his granddaughter, the princess of Jinan Wang's family, to him. From then on, the Rouran regularly paid tribute. To the north of the Tuyuhun country is a country called Yifewu, with customs similar to Tuyuhun, not knowing how to grow crops, only eating fish and a plant known as Suzi, which looks similar to Chinese wolfberries. Further north is a country called Alan, who behave like wild beasts, not knowing how to fight. At the sight of strangers, the entire population scatters. They have no special products and mainly rely on livestock for a living. They run so fast that they can't be caught, even if someone tries to chase them.
Further north, there is a kingdom of queens, where women are in charge and outsiders cannot enter at all, or so the story goes. The Dangchang Qiang people are probably descendants of the ancient Sanmiao tribe. During the Zhou Dynasty, they, along with Yong, Shu, Wei, Lu, and four other states, helped King Wu overthrow the Shang Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty, Qiang tribes like the Xianling and Shaodang were always a constant threat on the border. Their territory is adjacent to the Central Plains in the east, leading to the Western Regions in the west, and stretching for thousands of miles north and south. Each tribe has its own distinct surnames, and each leader manages their own territory independently, with little contact between them. Dangchang is just one of these tribes. They are all native residents, living in houses covered with fabric woven from yak tails and goat hair. They have no laws or taxes, and only come together for warfare, while otherwise living separately. They wear leather and woolen clothes and raise yaks, cattle, and pigs for food. When a father, son, uncle, or brother dies, they marry their stepmother, aunt, sister-in-law, or brother's widow. They have no writing system, only marking the passage of time by observing changes in plant growth. Every three years, they gather to offer sacrifices of cattle and sheep to the heavens. Legend has it that there was once a man named Liang Qin, whose family had been local leaders for generations and was highly respected by the Qiang heroes, so he declared himself king. Liang Qin's grandson, Mi Hu, during the early reign of Emperor Shun, sent his son Mi Huang to the capital to request to pledge allegiance to the court. The Emperor was delighted and appointed Mi Hu as the King of Dangchang, and Mi Huang as the Marquis of Gansong. After Mi Hu's death, his grandson Huzi succeeded to the throne.
Dangchang, from Chouchi in the east to the west, stretches over a thousand miles from east to west and is about eight hundred miles wide from north to south, boasting many mountains and vast lands, and a population of over twenty thousand households. They have been paying tribute to the court for generations, but their tribute is sometimes intercepted by the Tuyuhun. After Huzi died, Muzhi succeeded to the throne. At that time, Huzi's younger brother, Yangzi, fled to Tuyuhun, and Tuyuhun sent troops to escort Yangzi, hoping to seize Muzhi's throne. Muzhi quickly sent messengers to the court for help. Emperor Xianzu ordered General Yuwen Sheng from Wudu to provide assistance, and Yangzi then fled in disgrace. After Muzhi's death, his son Miji ascended the throne and sent his Sima Li to the capital to present tribute. Later, Yang Wendu rebelled and besieged Wudu, and Miji sent his two brothers to rescue Wudu and defeat Yang Wendu, driving him away. During Emperor Gaozu's reign, Miji sent envoys to present tributes of cinnabar, realgar, and white stone gall to the court, each weighing one hundred pounds. Since then, tribute has been paid annually without interruption. Later, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Gui, the Minister of Rites, and envoy Zhang Cha to appoint Miji as the Grand General of the Southern Expedition, the Colonel of the Western Rong, the Governor of Liangyi, the Duke of Henan, and the King of Dangchang. Miji later went to the capital to meet the emperor, but he displayed a complete lack of decorum. After the audience, Emperor Gaozu turned to his attendants and remarked, "A barbarian with a ruler is worse than the fall of the Zhou dynasty. Look at this King of Dangchang; despite being a border leader, he pales in comparison to a minor official in our Central Plains!" As a result, Emperor Gaozu reappointed him as the Protector of the Western Rong and Governor of Lingzhou, while maintaining his royal title, and granted him vehicles, warhorses, brocade, and other gifts before sending him back to his homeland.
Gaochang, formerly the territory of the Kingdom of Cheshi, was also the frontier region of the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty. It spans two thousand miles east to west and five hundred miles north to south, surrounded by mountains. Some say that during the Western Expedition of Emperor Wu of Han, the army became weary there, and many soldiers settled in the area. Due to its high, open terrain, the local population thrived, which is why it was named after that camp. It is four thousand nine hundred miles from Chang'an to Gaochang, where the Grand Historian of the Western Regions and the Wujijiaowei were stationed during the Han Dynasty. During the Jin Dynasty, it was designated as Gaochang County, and officials were sent to govern Gaochang when Zhang Gui, Lü Guang, and Juqu Mengxun controlled the Hexi region. It takes thirteen days to travel from Dunhuang to Gaochang. Gaochang has eight cities, inhabited by Han people. The area is rocky with gravel. The climate is warm, the land is fertile, crops can be harvested twice a year, suitable for sericulture, rich in fruits, and home to many lacquer trees. There is a grass called sheep thorn that secretes honey, which has a particularly pleasant flavor. They irrigate the fields with water. Gaochang produces red salt with excellent taste; there is also white salt, like jade, which the people of Gaochang use as pillows and tribute to the Central Plains dynasty. It also produces a significant amount of grape wine. The locals worship both celestial deities and follow Buddhism. Gaochang's sheep and horses are raised in remote areas to avoid enemies, and only the elite know the locations of those pastures. North of Gaochang lies Chishi Mountain, seventy miles away is Tanhan Mountain, which still has snow on its peak in summer, and beyond Tanhan Mountain to the north is the territory of the Tiele people.
During the reign of Emperor Taiyan of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there was a man named Kan Shuang who took office as the Governor of Gaochang. During this time, the Northern Wei sent Wang Ensheng and others as envoys to Gaochang, but they were captured by the Rouran. During the reign of Emperor Zhenjun of the Northern Wei, Kan Shuang was attacked by Juqu Wuwei, and Gaochang was taken over. After the death of Juqu Wuwei, his brother Juqu Anzhou succeeded him. In the first year of the Northern Wei peace era, Gaochang was annexed by the Rouran. The Rouran appointed Kan Bozhou as the King of Gaochang, and from then on, Gaochang had a king. During Emperor Taihe's reign, Kan Bozhou died, and his son Kan Yicheng succeeded him. Over a year later, he was killed by his brother Kan Shougui, who then declared himself as the King of Gaochang.
Five years ago, King Kezhi of Gaoche killed his own brother and then appointed Zhang Mengming, a Dunhuang man, as king. Later, Zhang Mengming was killed by the Gaoche, and Li Ma succeeded him as king. He appointed Gong Guli and Qu Jia as his chief officials, serving as his right-hand men.
Twenty-one years later, Li Ma sent Sima Wang Tixuan with gifts as tribute, requesting the court to send troops for their escort, hoping the entire population could move to the Central Plains. Emperor Gaozu agreed and sent General Han Anbao with over a thousand cavalry to assist, and also allocated five hundred li of land in Yiwu for their settlement. However, when they reached Yangzhenshui, Li Ma sent Gong Guli and Qu Jia with fifteen hundred infantry and cavalry to meet General Han Anbao, but when they were still four hundred li from Gaochang, General Han Anbao failed to appear. Gong Guli and his companions had no option but to return to Gaochang, while General Han Anbao made his way back to Yiwu.
General Han Anbao sent Han Xing'an and twelve others to Gaochang, and immediately Li Maru dispatched Gong Guli with his heir, Yishu, to welcome Han Anbao. When they arrived at Baiji City, which was still one hundred sixty miles away from Gaochang, the old ministers of Gaochang were unwilling to leave their hometown and resisted relocation. Consequently, they conspired to assassinate Li Maru and supported Qu Jia as the new king.
Qu Jia, whose courtesy name was Lingfeng, was from Yuzhong in Jincheng. He initially submitted to the Rouran Chanyu Naga, but later, motivated by a sense of righteousness, he escorted Anbao and others safely to Luoyang. After the Rouran Chanyu Futuo was killed by the Gaoju forces, Qu Jia then submitted to the Gaoju. At that time, all the Hu people in the front were relocated by the Gaoju to Yechi, but Yechi was subsequently attacked and breached by the Yeda, leading to the scattering of the citizens. With no means to establish themselves, they requested Qu Jia to become their king. Qu Jia sent his second son to become the king of Yechi and help them govern the country.
In the first year of Yongping, Qu Jia sent his nephew, who had already been unofficially appointed as the General of the Left Guard and the Land Governor, Xiao Liang, to the capital to meet the emperor, while also requesting the court to allow them to relocate inland and to send troops to assist them. The court sent General Meng Wei of Longxiang to lead three thousand troops from Liangzhou to greet them, but upon reaching Yiyu, they turned back because they did not arrive on time. For over a decade after that, Qu Jia continuously sent envoys to pay tribute, bringing red portraits, black-and-white sable fur, fine horses, salt pillows, and other items, demonstrating their sincerity and hoping the court would grant them permission to move inland, but the court never sent troops to welcome them again.
Three years later, Jia once again sent envoys to pay tribute, and Emperor Shizong sent Meng Wei to console him. During the Yanchang period, the court appointed Jia as General of Order, General of the West, Governor of Guazhou, and Duke of Tailin County, while retaining his original title. During the Xiping period, Jia once again sent envoys to pay tribute. The court decreed, "Your region is separated by towering mountains and rugged terrain, with borders close to deserts. You have repeatedly requested the court to send troops to support you and requested relocation. Although your sincerity deserves commendation, it is not quite appropriate in principle. Why? Because the people there are remnants from the Han and Wei dynasties. Since the Jin dynasty, the country has been weakened, and they have been displaced and resettled, finally establishing their homes and country, which has persisted for many years. If they are moved again, they will surely long for their homeland. If they are forcibly relocated now, it may trigger various disturbances. You are under the court's protection; there is no need to act as stated in your memorials."
In the winter of the first year of Shengui, Xiaoliang once again submitted a memorial requesting the court to assist them in relocation, but the court still did not agree. In the first year of Zhengguang, Emperor Suzong sent acting General Zhao Yi and others to visit Jia's country. Jia never ceased paying tribute, and he sent envoys to submit a memorial, stating that because his country was located in a remote area and was unfamiliar with the court's regulations, he requested the court to lend them the "Five Classics" and some historical books, and also requested the court to send Liu Bian, an assistant professor at the Imperial Academy, to be their tutor. Emperor Suzong agreed to his request.
After Jia's death, the court posthumously appointed him General Who Guards the West and Governor of Liangzhou. His son Jian inherited his position. Later, a rebellion occurred in the Guanzhong region, and communication between the court and Jian was interrupted. During the Putai era, Jian sent envoys to pay tribute, and the court appointed him as General of the West, Governor of Guazhou, Earl of Tailin County, with his title retained, and also conferred upon him the title of Guard General. During the Yongxi period, the court specially appointed him as General of the Household and elevated him to the rank of Duke. Afterwards, their communication was once again severed.
Deng Zhi, a Qiang person from Bai Shui, whose ancestors were Qiang tribal leaders for several generations, adopted the local place name as his title, referring to himself as Deng Zhi. His territory stretches from Ting Street in the east to Pingwu in the west, and from Wenling in the north to Dangchang in the south. The local customs and people are similar to those in Dangchang. Their leaders, such as Shu Zhi, once sent envoys to submit to the imperial court, and the emperor conferred upon him the titles of Dragon Cavalry General and King Deng Zhi, and they have since been paying tribute to the court.
West of Deng Zhi lies more than twenty countries, including Heyang, which also regularly send envoys to pay tribute to the court, and the court grants them titles such as miscellaneous generals, sons, and marshals.
There are many types of southern tribes, believed to be descendants of Panhu. Their origins date back to ancient times. They alternate between submission and rebellion, and these occurrences are documented in historical records. They inhabit the Jianghuai region, nestled among mountains and rivers, and their tribes continue to grow and expand, spreading across several states, linking to Shou Chun in the east, Shangluo in the west, and near Ruying in the north. They are everywhere. During the Wei Dynasty, their influence was limited, but by the end of the Jin Dynasty, their power gradually increased, and they became increasingly brutal. Since Liu Shi's rebellion, these tribes have become more audacious, prompting their clans to gradually migrate north, leaving traces throughout the mountains and valleys south of Luhun. The Wuanluo area has turned desolate and nearly into ruins.
After Emperor Taizu subdued Zhongshan, his renown spread north of the Yellow River. In the eighth year of Taichang, the barbarian king Mei An brought several thousand leaders to pay their respects to the emperor, requesting to leave hostages as a sign of their loyalty. During the Shiguang period, the court appointed Mei An's son Bao as General An Yuan, Governor of Jiangzhou, and Duke of Shunyang. During the Xingguang period, the barbarian king Wen Wulong surrendered, prompting the court to issue a decree praising him and appointing him as Governor of Nanyongzhou and Marquis of Luyang.
During the Yanxing period, Huan Dan, the barbarian chieftain of Dayang, led more than 80,000 households from north of the Mianshui River to south of the Tianshui River to submit to the court. The emperor was very pleased and appointed him as the General of the Southern Expedition, the Governor of Dongjingzhou, and the King of Xiangyang, and allowed him to select his own counties and prefectures for governance. Huan Dan, whose courtesy name was Tiansheng, was the son of Huan Xuan. When Huan Xuan fled west to Meihui Island, where he was killed, Huan Dan was only a few years old and fell among the Dayang barbarians, gradually learning their customs. As he grew up, Huan Dan was very intelligent and strategic, earning the support of various barbarian tribes.
After Huan Dan submitted to the court, he settled in Langling. In the fourth year of Taihe, the imperial army marched south to launch an attack, and Huan Dan requested to serve as the vanguard, thus being appointed as the envoy with authority and the Grand Commander of the Southern Expedition to the Western Route to attack Yiyang, but ultimately did not succeed and returned. Ten years later, he moved to Yingyang to live. In the sixteenth year, according to regulations, his title of king was lowered to duke. In the seventeenth year, he was promoted once more to General of the Southern Expedition and Grand Commander of the Central Route to campaign against Jingling. On the way, he encountered the army from Luoyang, and the army came to a halt. At that time, the General of the Conquering Troops under Xiao Ze, General Zhihe, and the barbarian leader Tian Yizong led over 4,000 households to pledge allegiance to the court. The chieftains of Xiangyang, including Lei Posi and ten others, led over a thousand households to migrate to the court, requesting to settle in Dahe Chuan, and the court ordered provisions to be supplied to them. Later, the court established Nanyang, providing a settlement for these barbarian peoples from north of the Mianshui River. The barbarian people lived and worked peacefully, no longer turning to banditry. In the eighteenth year, Huan Dan presented himself at court and received a grand reward from the emperor. He later passed away and was posthumously granted the title "Gang." His son, Huan Hui, whose courtesy name was Daojin, rose to the position of General Longxiang and Governor of Dongjingzhou, inheriting his title.
In the early years of Jingming, the leader of the Dayang barbarian tribe, Tian Yuqiu, along with others, led 28,000 households to submit to the court. The court established four commanderies and eighteen counties. After Huan Hui's death, he was posthumously awarded the title of Champion General. In the third year of Jingming, the leader of the Luyang barbarian tribe, Lu Beiyan, and others gathered their forces to attack Yingchuan. The court ordered the Left Guard General Li Chong to quell the rebellion and relocated over ten thousand households to various states and six towns in Hebei. These individuals later rebelled once more and fled south; the court pursued them to the Yellow River, where they were all exterminated. In the fourth year of Jingming, the leader of the Dongjingzhou barbarian tribe, Fan Su'an, rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor. In the first year of Zhengshi, Fan Su'an's brother, Fan Xiu'an, also rebelled, and Li Chong and Yang Dayan led troops to suppress the rebellion. In the second year of Zhengshi, Tian Qingxi, the governor of Miandong appointed by Xiao Yan, led seven commanderies and thirty-one counties, totaling 19,000 households, to submit to the court, requesting the court to dispatch troops against Xiao Yan and expressing a willingness to lead his subordinates to cut off the overland and water routes more than 500 miles east of Yongzhou and west of Shicheng. In the fourth year of Zhengshi, Wen Yunsheng, the governor of Yongning under Xiao Yan, led six divisions of troops to submit to the court from the Handong region. At the beginning of the Yongping era, Dongjingzhou reported to the court that Governor Huan Shuxing had pacified and recruited the barbarian tribes in the Dayang region, with over 17,000 households having submitted. They subsequently requested the court to establish a commandery, sixteen counties, and fifty townships. The emperor ordered Li Daoyuan, who was then serving as the chief historian in the Eastern Court, to conduct an on-site investigation to determine if it was feasible. Incidentally, Huan Shuxing is the brother of Huan Hui.
In the first year of Yanchang, Huan Shuxing was appointed as the governor of South Jingzhou Province and resided in Anchang, which at that time was under the jurisdiction of East Jingzhou. Three years later, Xiao Yan sent troops to attack the Jianghan region, burning, killing, and plundering the barbarian people, causing widespread panic among the common folk, who fled in all directions. The barbarians in South Jingzhou banded together, numbering over twenty thousand, and repeatedly requested Huan Shuxing to lead them to bolster their strength. Huan Shuxing then provided them with a unified banner and a show of force, commanding them to follow his leadership, which helped bring stability to the barbarians.
In the same year, Xiao Yan's governor of Yongzhou, Xiao Zao, sent his generals Cai Lingsun and two others to attack the southwestern part of South Jingzhou, burning, killing, and plundering the barbarian communities around Xiangyang and Mianyang. One such leader was Chu Shilian, who had originally served as General Longxiang under Xiao Yan but later rebelled against him and sought Huan Shuxing's assistance. Huan Shuxing and Chu Shilian led over twenty thousand barbarian and Han soldiers to rout Xiao Zao's army and killed Generals Cai Lingsun and the others. Xiao Zao then sent the governor of Xinyang, Shao Daolin, to the south of Mianshui, northeast of Shicheng, to construct the Qingshui Garrison as a base for launching attacks on South Jingzhou. Huan Shuxing dispatched his barbarian troops to take the Qingshui Garrison.
In the fourth year of Yanchang, Huan Shuxing petitioned the court to have South Jingzhou no longer be under the jurisdiction of East Jingzhou, and the court granted his request. Whenever Xiao Yan sent troops to harass him, Huan Shuxing managed to defeat them. During the Zhengguang era, a fellow named Shuxing rebelled with his troops and fled south.
At this time, the barbarian leader Cheng Long brought thousands of households to submit to the court and was appointed as the governor. Another barbarian leader, Tian Wusheng, also moved two thousand households to Yangzhou and was appointed as the prefect. Wang Wensengming, the governor of Yizhou serving under Xiao Yan, along with General Tieqi and the magistrate of Biancheng, Tian Guande, brought over ten thousand households to submit to the court. The court appointed Wensengming as General Pingnan and governor of Xiyuzhou, and granted him the title of marquis; Guande was appointed as General Longxiang and governor of Yizhou; others who surrendered were also rewarded accordingly. Wensengming and Guande went to the capital to pay their respects. At this time, around eight to nine thousand households of barbarians emerged from the mountains, heading towards Biancheng and Jian'an. Unfortunately, Yizhou was later occupied by Xiao Yan's general Pei Sui.
Tian Chaoxiu, the governor of Yizhou under Xiao Yan, also sent someone to request submission, claiming that the court had failed to provide the reinforcements owed to them for many years. The court was worried that sending troops easily would cause turmoil at the border, so they did not agree to him. Later, after Tian Chaoxiu died, his subordinates brought their troops to submit to the court, and the court relocated them to the Liu Town and Qinlong regions, but these people rebelled again once they arrived there.
In Jingzhou and the Xiyin
Additionally, the Ran and Xiang families hold particularly strong power. Other tribal forces include large clans with over ten thousand households and smaller ones numbering in the thousands. They compare and boast to one another, all claiming to be princes and nobles, occupying the strategically important Three Gorges and obstructing the waterways. Travelers from Jingzhou to Shu often have to take detours.
The Liao people are a kind of southern indigenous people, with traces of them everywhere from Hanzhong to Qiongzu Canyon. There are many different types, scattered in the deep mountains and old forests, almost without the concept of clans, let alone surnames. They don't even have names; when a child is born in the family, they are referred to in order of seniority. Men are called Amo, Aduan, etc., and women are called Ayi, Adeng, etc. They live in wooden huts built with tree trunks, called "Ganlan," and the size of Ganlan depends on the number of family members. Usually, an older person is elected as the clan leader, but their authority is very limited and they have limited authority over a large area. When a father dies, his son inherits his position, similar to the hereditary nobility of the Central Plains. Every Liao king has a pair of drums and horns for his descendants to play. They are brave and fierce, killing each other, so few people dare to travel far. They can dive to catch fish and can also hold a knife to stab fish underwater. They chew food and drink water through their noses. Dead people are buried upright in coffins. Their temperament is similar to that of wild beasts. Once they get angry, they don't care about father-son relationships; whoever has a weapon will strike first. If they kill their father and escape, as long as they bring a dog to compensate their mother, and the mother accepts the compensation, they will not be pursued. If they attack each other for revenge, they will kill each other and eat them. They usually engage in robbery, stealing pigs and dogs to sell. Relatives and neighbors also buy and sell slaves; the sold people cry and refuse to leave, running away and hiding, while the buyers chase them, saying they are like fugitives, and once caught, they are tied up. Once tied up, the person becomes an outcast and can no longer be a good citizen. They cry briefly over a lost child but soon forget. They only use shields and spears and don't know what a bow and arrow is. They create musical instruments from bamboo reeds, gathering together to play. They weave fine cloth in bright and beautiful colors. A large dog can be exchanged for a slave. They are very superstitious, particularly fond of engaging in superstitious rituals. When they kill someone with good-looking hair and beard, they peel off their skin, frame it with bamboo, dry it, and call it a "ghost." They then worship it with gongs and drums, praying for benefits. Some even sell their own siblings, spouses, and slaves, and then sell themselves for worship and sacrifice. They use bronze to cast utensils, with wide mouths and bellies, called bronze vessels, thin and light, easy to cook food.
The customs of these people are really strange! You see, when they lose a child, they just cry for a while and that's it, which is far from the heart-wrenching, day-and-night longing we feel in the Central Plains. Moreover, they kill each other, even father against son; this is even worse than the behavior of beasts! Yet, they can weave brightly colored fine cloth, and that skill is not bad at all. Trading large dogs for slaves is quite an odd business as well. What’s most incomprehensible is that they actually skin people to create "ghosts" for their sacrifices; in order to gain benefits, they would even sell their own relatives for offerings! This is absolutely insane! However, their bronze cauldrons made from casting bronze are quite lightweight and practical, which is actually a pretty neat invention. In summary, the customs of these tribes are truly astonishing and perplexing. Their way of life is worlds apart from ours in the Central Plains! This southern land is really full of mystery and the unknown. Their culture has huge differences from ours. We find it hard to understand their actions, but we should also respect their culture; after all, they are people too!
At the time of the founding of the nation, Li Shi was in charge in Shu, and as a result, the tribes from places like Baxi, Quchuan, Guanghan, Yang'an, and Zizhong suddenly rebelled, breaking through several counties and becoming a major headache for Yizhou. Li Shi faced both internal and external troubles, which ultimately led to his failure. Ever since Huan Wen defeated the Shu Kingdom, the court hasn’t had the power to keep those areas in check. Additionally, the people of Shu fled eastward, leaving many mountainous regions deserted, which the tribes took the opportunity to occupy. The tribes living alongside the Han people could barely pay some taxes, while those living deep in the mountains weren't even on the books. During Xiao Yan's administration, Liangzhou and Yizhou fought every year, just to gain some benefits from the tribes; both the government and private individuals relied on this to get rich.
During the Zhengshi years, Xiahou Daoqian surrendered to the court with the people from the Hanzhong region, and the emperor appointed Minister Xiang Luan as the Governor of Liangzhou and Yizhou, to govern that region. The tribes near the Han people settled down and thrived, and those in the mountains no longer dared to come out and rob. Later, the court appointed Yang Zhi as the Governor of Liangzhou and Fu Shuyan as the Governor of Yizhou. Yang Zhi was particularly cruel and lacked the ability to relate to the common people. Fan Jixu, the General of the State Protector under Xiao Yan, and the Liao King Zhao Qingjing set up camp in Xiaozigu, so Yang Zhi sent Commander Wei Hu to drive them off. Later, General Jiang Bai of Ning Shuo under Xiao Yan led the tribal army to camp in Nancheng, and Wang Faqing from Liangzhou colluded with them to set up camp in Gumenchuan, so Yang Zhi sent the General of Conquest (name missing) to defeat them. Fu Shuyan was different; he was very good at winning people's hearts, and the tribes listened to him. Later, the court sent Yuan Fasing to replace Fu Shuyan as the Governor of Yizhou, but Yuan Fasing was excessively greedy, and the tribes rebelled again, even joining forces with Xiao Yan's army to besiege Jinshou. The court became quite anxious, thinking that Fu Shuyan had previously maintained good relations with the tribes, so they sent him to quickly pacify them. When the tribes heard that Fu Shuyan was coming, they were overjoyed and knelt along the road to welcome him, which helped to calm the situation. When Yuan Heng and Yuan Zixi subsequently served as Governors of Liangzhou, they were ineffective, and the tribes endured significant suffering.
The court thought that Liangzhou and Yizhou were remote and difficult to manage, so they established Bazhou to govern the 'Liao' minority. Later on, the court appointed a Liao leader, Yan Shixin, as the governor of Bazhou and established Longcheng Town there, which oversaw around two hundred thousand Liao households. These Liao people were known as "Northern Liao," and they had to pay taxes and cloth every year, as well as engage in trade with the outside world. However, the Liao people in Bazhou were pretty resistant to being managed; the Liao leaders only paid visits to the governor during festivals and holidays, and there weren't any major issues.
During the reign of Emperor Xiaochang, the Liao people felt that Yan Shixin was greedy and ruthless, so they rebelled together and besieged Bazhou City. The Mountain South Circuit sent someone to persuade them, but the attempt to persuade them failed, and the Liao people went ahead with their attack. After that, many Liao leaders fled to the Mountain South Circuit, where the circuit governor, Zijian, welcomed them warmly and showered them with gifts. Yan Shixin realized the court was in chaos and that he had lost the Liao people's support, fearing punishment, he contemplated defecting to the Southern Liang. At that time, the Southern Liang governor in Bazhou, Yin Zichun, was stirring up rebellion along the border, and Yan Shixin wanted to join him in the rebellion. Unexpectedly, Yan Shixin's nephew, Yan Kai, the town commander of Longcheng, caught wind of Yan Shixin's plan, quickly beefed up the defenses, captured the envoy from the Southern Liang, and found evidence like the Southern Liang's edict, a golden token for immunity from death, swords, clothes, hats, and so on, which he then forwarded to the Mountain South Circuit.
Zi Jian submitted a memorial to the court, renaming Longcheng Town as Nanliang Prefecture, appointing Yan Kai as the regional governor, then dispatching agents to apprehend Yan Shixin and imprison him in Nanzheng. Later, Zi Jian was transferred, and Fu Shuyan, the governor of Liangzhou, took over as the acting official. Fu Shuyan suffered from chronic illness, and his son, Fu Jingshao, received numerous bribes from Yan Shixin, so he released Yan Shixin and allowed him to return to Bazu. Once Yan Shixin returned to Bazu, he assembled forces to launch an attack on Yan Kai, killed him, seized control of Bazu City, and formally allied with Nanliang. Nanliang sent Xiao Wan to support him. During this time, both Liangzhou and Yizhou dispatched troops to confront Yan Shixin, captured him, defeated Xiao Wan's forces, and killed Xiao Wan himself. Finally, the court appointed Fu Tan as the new governor of Bazu. Later, while Yuan Luo served as an envoy in Liangzhou, he too was framed for rebellion, and from that point forward, the rebellion in Bazu was suppressed. According to historical records: the customs, preferences, aversions, and means of communication among minority ethnic groups such as the Di, Qiang, Man, and Liao vary significantly. A wise leader must develop policies based on the actual circumstances to comprehend their desires and engage with their customs. However, while the borders may be secure, internal issues can still emerge. Future generations should heed this history as a cautionary tale!
