The "Book of Xia" states, "The Western Barbarians come in order," and Ban Gu explains that the orderly tribute from the Western Barbarians is not because the Han Dynasty's military strength intimidated them, but because of the Han Dynasty's combination of benevolence and authority, which made them willingly pay tribute. When the Han Dynasty first began to interact with the Western Regions, there were probably thirty-six countries. Later, these countries merged and split, becoming fifty-five vassal states, and the Han Dynasty specifically established military officers and administrators to manage them. However, when Wang Mang usurped power, the relations with the Western Regions were severed.
By the time of the Eastern Han, Ban Chao reconnected with more than fifty countries in the Western Regions, reaching as far west as the Western Sea, spanning over ten thousand miles from east to west. These countries came to pay tribute, and the Eastern Han reestablished military officers and administrators to manage them. However, the relationship between the Western Regions and the Central Plains fluctuated, and the Han Dynasty felt that this was a drain on the people and resources, so these official positions were sometimes established and sometimes not. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, the countries in the Western Regions began to attack and annex each other, making the specific situation difficult to clarify.
At the beginning of our great ancestor emperor's reign, most of his efforts were focused on pacifying the Central Plains, and he did not pay attention to those countries in the Western Regions. Later, when the countries in the Western Regions stopped paying tribute, the relevant departments suggested imitating the Han Dynasty's approach and re-establishing contact with the Western Regions, which would not only demonstrate the prestige of our great Han but also allow us to obtain many good things from the Western Regions. The great ancestor emperor remarked, "The Han Dynasty couldn't even manage the common people well, yet they went to great lengths to manage the Western Regions, leading to widespread poverty. What benefit is there in that? If we were to re-establish contact with the Western Regions now, those previous disadvantages would fall back on the common people!" Therefore, he did not agree. During the reign of Emperor Taizong, no contact was established with the Western Regions either.
During the reign of Emperor Yan of the Wei Dynasty, the reputation of Wei's virtue was renowned far and wide. The kings of various countries in the Western Territories, such as Kucha, Shule, Wusun, Yuezhi, Khotan, Shanshan, Yanqi, Cheshi, Sogdiana, and others, all sent envoys to pay tribute. The Emperor felt that although the Western Territories had engaged in trade during the Han Dynasty, these countries would grovel when they needed something from the Han Dynasty, but would be arrogant and disrespectful when they had no needs, knowing that their remoteness made it hard for Han troops to reach them. Therefore, the Emperor believed that sending envoys back and forth would ultimately serve no purpose, so he decided not to send any envoys.
However, some officials advised that these nine countries were undeterred by the long journey and had come from afar to offer rare and precious treasures as tribute, so they should be accepted. How could they prevent future countries from paying tribute if they blocked these countries in advance? The Emperor agreed after reading this memorial. So, the Emperor sent Wang Ensheng, Xu Gang, and others to the Western Territories. However, Wang Ensheng was captured by the Rouran people as soon as he reached the desert and was unable to reach his destination.
Later, the Emperor sent Dong Wan, Gao Ming, and others with a lot of brocade and silk to Shanshan to appease these nine countries and give them generous rewards. Dong Wan and his group visited the nine countries and afterward continued north to Wusun. The King of Wusun was very happy to receive the rewards from the court and asked Dong Wan if they could visit the two countries of Polonan and Yezheche, who admired Wei's virtue and wished to pay tribute but were unsure of how to navigate the route.
Dong Wan then reached out to the countries of Wusun and Polona and sent Gao Ming as an envoy. The king of Wusun also helped by sending people to guide and interpret. Dong Wan and his team presented the emperor's edict to them and offered condolences and rewards. Later, Dong Wan and Gao Ming returned east, and Wusun, Polona, and other countries sent envoys with Dong Wan to pay tribute, with a total of sixteen countries. Since then, envoys from various countries in the Western Regions have been arriving continuously, with dozens of groups each year.
Initially, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei always assigned the King of Hexi, Juqu Mujian, to escort the envoys to the Western Regions. When the envoys arrived in Guzang, Juqu Mujian would send people to guide them through the desert. Later, upon their return from the Western Regions to Wuwei, Juqu Mujian's subordinates told them, "Our king has fallen for the lies of the Rouran leader Wuti. Wuti said, 'Last year, the Emperor of Wei personally attacked us, resulting in many soldiers and horses dying, and a great defeat. I even captured his brother, King Leping Tuoba Pi.' Our king was quite pleased and spread this tale throughout the realm." They also heard that Wuti sent envoys to tell the various Western Regions countries, "The Wei Empire is now weak, and we are the strongest in the world. If there are any Wei envoys in the future, do not treat them respectfully." As a result, some Western Regions countries began to disregard Northern Wei. Juqu Mujian's attitude toward the Northern Wei court grew increasingly dismissive. After the envoys returned to the court, they reported all these situations to Emperor Taiwu, who then decided to attack Juqu Mujian.
After Liangzhou was pacified, the kingdom of Shanshan realized, "Without lips, the teeth will be cold; it's a natural law. Now Wuwei has been destroyed by the Wei Empire, and next in line will be us. If we keep in touch with the Wei Empire and reveal our situation, our downfall is just around the corner. It is better to sever ties so that we can survive," and thus closed the border passage. Tributes from the Western Regions stopped arriving for several years. Eventually, after Northern Wei subdued Shanshan, envoys were allowed to pass through once more.
Initially, Cui Wan and his companions returned to the capital after their journey to the Western Regions and detailed their observations and the news they had gathered from other nations along the way. They said: Since the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there were more than fifty countries in the Western Regions, which gradually merged. By the reign of Emperor Tai Yan, only sixteen countries remained, which divided the Western Regions into four distinct areas. One area was located east of the Congling Mountains and west of the Lop Nor; another area lay west of the Congling Mountains and east of the Sea of Quicksand; the third area was situated south of the Pamirs and north of the Yuezhi; the fourth area was located between the two seas and south of the Water Marsh. Within these regions, there were numerous minor chieftains, likely numbering over a hundred. Originally, there were two roads leading from the Western Regions to the Central Plains, but eventually expanded to four: one route started at the Yumen Pass, crossed the Sea of Quicksand, and traveled west for two thousand li to Shanshan; another route began at the Yumen Pass, crossed the Sea of Quicksand, and headed north for two thousand two hundred li to Cheshi; a third route went from Shache heading west for one hundred li to the Congling Mountains, then continued west for one thousand three hundred li to Gabai; the fourth route started at Shache heading southwest for five hundred li to the Congling Mountains, then proceeded southwest for one thousand three hundred li to Polu. Besides the countries mentioned by Cui Wan and his companions, there were also other countries that came to pay tribute, but they only recorded the names without detailing the customs of these nations. They also noted the differences observed this time compared to previous envoys. The country of Shanshan, with its capital known as Hani City, formerly Loulan, was located seven thousand six hundred li from Chang'an, and the capital's city wall was merely one li long. The area was sandy, with salt-alkali land and scarce water and grass, and to the north was the road to the White Dragon Mound. Shanshan did not send envoys until the early years of Emperor Tai Yan. Four years later, the king's brother, Su Yanqi, was dispatched to the court as an attendant.
Later, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei conquered Liangzhou, and Juqu Wuhui, the brother of Juqu Muqian, fled to Dunhuang to avoid capture. Juqu Wuhui later wanted to cross the quicksand, so he sent his brother Anzhou to attack Shanshan. The king of Shanshan, Bilong, was terrified and wanted to surrender. Just then, envoys from the Wei dynasty returned from Tianzhu and Kijin, and they all met in Shanshan, urging Bilong to stand firm. As a result, there were many battles, but Anzhou failed to capture the city and had to retreat to Dongcheng. Later, Bilong remained fearful and led everyone to flee west to the Kingdom of Qiemu, while his son surrendered to Anzhou. The people of Shanshan rampaged and looted, not allowing Anzhou and his men to pass.
The Emperor then sent Duke Wandu Gui, the Cavalry Commandant, ordering him to lead troops from Liangzhou on a campaign. Wandu Gui arrived in Dunhuang, left the supplies behind, and took five thousand light cavalry across the quicksand to Shanshan. At that time, the Shanshan people were scattered across the wilderness. Wandu Gui ordered his soldiers not to loot, and the border guards were touched by his actions, all waiting to surrender to him. The king of Shanshan, Zhendai, bound himself and came forward to surrender. Wandu Gui untied him, left a garrison of troops, and then took Zhendai to Chang'an. The Emperor was highly pleased and treated them graciously. That year, the Emperor appointed Han Ba, Duke of Jiaozhi, as a temporary general and commander of the Western Frontier, ordering him to garrison Shanshan alongside the king, levy taxes and conscript labor from the people of Shanshan, and manage Shanshan as a commandery.
The Kingdom of Qiemu has its capital called Qiemu City, located to the west of the Kingdom of Shanshan, 8,320 li away from Chang'an. In the third year of the Zhenjun era, the king of Shanshan, King Bilong, fled to Qiemu with half of his people to escape from Juqu Anzhou. Later, Qiemu came under the control of Shanshan. To the northwest of Qiemu are hundreds of li of shifting sands, and in the summer, there are hot winds, which pose a significant danger to travelers. When the wind comes, only the old camels can sense it in advance; they will call out and gather together, burying their mouths and noses in the sand. People gauge their actions by the camels' reactions and hurry to cover their noses and mouths with blankets. The wind is swift and ferocious, and it passes in a moment; if one does not take precautions in advance, they will surely be blown to death.
The Kingdom of Yutian is located to the northwest of Qiemu, more than 200 li south of the Congling Mountains. It is 1,500 li east to Shanshan, 2,000 li south to the Kingdom of Nü, 1,000 li to Zhujupa, and 1,400 li north to Kuche, while it is a staggering 9,800 li from Chang'an! Its territory spans thousands of li, with mountains that stretch endlessly. The city walls of the capital have a circumference of about eight or nine li, and there are five large cities and dozens of small cities throughout the country. Located thirty li east of Yutian City is a place called Shoubahuo, known for its jade production. This area is suitable for growing grains, mulberry trees, and hemp, and there are many beautiful jades in the mountains, as well as fine horses, camels, and mules. Their laws dictate that a life must be paid for a life, while other crimes are punished according to their severity. The customs and resources of Yutian closely resemble those of Kuche.
The people there are very devoted to Buddhism, with many temples, pagodas, monks, and nuns. The king is especially devout, personally cleaning and preparing food on fasting days. Fifty miles south of the city flows a Zanmo Monastery, which is said to have been built by the Arhat monk Lu Zhan for their king. There are still traces of the Buddha's footprints on the stones, with the two footprints still present! Five hundred miles west of Kucha is a Bimo Temple, which is said to be the place where Laozi became a Buddha after converting the Hu. However, their customs are lacking in moral values, with many thieves and a relatively loose lifestyle. To the west of Gaochang, most people have deep eye sockets and high nose bridges, but the people of Kucha do not look much like Westerners, but instead resemble people from our Central Plains.
Twenty miles east of the city flows a river called Shuzhi Water, which runs north. Fifty-five miles west of the city, there is another river called Dali Water, which flows north after joining Shuzhi Water.
During the reign of Zhenjun, the emperor ordered King Gaoliang to attack the Murriyan of the Tuyuhun. Murriyan, terrified, quickly led his tribe across the Luosha. The general pursued him closely, and Murriyan fled to Kucha, where he killed the king of Kucha, leading to numerous casualties.
During the late reign of Emperor Xianzu, the Rouran launched an attack on Yutian. The people of Yutian could no longer endure it, so they sent an envoy named Sumu Jia to report: "The countries to the west have all submitted themselves to the Rouran. We have served the great country loyally for generations and have not changed. Now the Rouran army has arrived at our gates. Although we have organized our own army to resist, we still request the assistance of the great country." The emperor convened his ministers to discuss the matter, and they said: "Yutian is located tens of thousands of miles away from the capital. The Rouran are known only for their plundering and do not know how to besiege cities. If the people of Yutian resist them, they will retreat on their own. Even if we want to send troops to help, it is simply too late." The emperor relayed the ministers' opinions to the envoy from Yutian, and he himself agreed with the ministers. So the emperor ordered: "I, as the ruler appointed by heaven, want all the people of the world to live in peace and happiness. I originally wanted to send troops to help you, but you are too far away. Even if we send troops, it will be too late to provide immediate assistance. Therefore, the army will not be sent for now; please take this situation into consideration. I am in the process of training the army, and within one or two years, I will personally lead the troops to help you solve this problem, so please wait patiently!"
Previously, the court sent the envoy Han Yangpi to Persia, and the Persian king sent trained elephants and other precious gifts. During his return journey, when Han Yangpi passed through Yutian, King Qiuren of Yutian audaciously confiscated the gifts, claiming to fear that enemies would come to rob them, so he dared not send them over. Han Yangpi reported this to the emperor, who was furious, and sent Han Yangpi with his orders to rebuke King Qiuren of Yutian. From that point onward, Yutian has sent envoys to pay tribute annually.
Pusan Country, which was formerly known as Pishan Country, lived in Picheng, south of Yutian, twelve thousand li away from Chang'an. Three li to the southwest of Pusan Country lies a mountain known as Dongling Mountain. Eventually, Pusan Country became a vassal state of Yutian.
Xijuban, formerly known as Xiye and also called Zihe, is ruled by a king who refers to himself as "Zi" and resides in Hujian City, which is situated west of Yutian, 12,970 li away from Chang'an. During the Taiyan era, Xijuban sent envoys to offer tribute, and since then, they have continued to send envoys to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of Quan, previously known as Wuzhi, has a king who resides in Wuzhi City, located to the southwest of Xijuban, 12,970 li away from Chang'an.
Qusha is situated in the old city of Shache, to the northwest of the Kingdom of Zihe, 12,980 li away from Chang'an.
The Kingdom of Cheshir was formerly a kingdom in an eastern region. Their king resides in Jiaohhe City, 15,000 li away from Dai County, bordering the Rouran to the north. Previously, the Kingdom of Cheshir maintained trade relations with our kingdom. It was only in the early reign of Emperor Shizu that he sent envoys to Cheshir to pay tribute. The emperor dispatched Wang Ensheng, Xu Gang, and others as envoys. As soon as Wang Ensheng and the others crossed the flowing sand, they were captured by the Rouran. When Wang Ensheng met the Rouran leader Wuti, he held the staff of the State of Wei and refused to submit. Later, Emperor Shizu severely reprimanded Wuti, who, fearing the emperor, released Wang Ensheng and the others. Xu Gang became ill and passed away in Dunhuang, and the court respected his integrity and posthumously granted him the title Duke of Integrity. Previously, the brothers of Juqu Wuhui crossed the flowing sand, gathered the exiles, and overthrew the Kingdom of Cheshir.
In the eleventh year of the reign of the Zhenjun Emperor, the King of Cheshir, Che Yiluo, sent envoys Zhuo Jin and Xue Zhi with a memorial that stated: "My father lived in a remote area at the border during his lifetime and always admired the Emperor's grace, sending envoys to pay tribute every year without interruption. The Emperor also paid special attention to us, bestowing very generous rewards. After I ascended the throne, I continued to pay tribute on time, and the Emperor's favor towards us has remained unchanged. I humbly take the liberty of presenting our difficulties to you, relying on the Emperor's grace. Since Juqu Wuhui attacked our country, it has been eight years, and the people are starving and unable to survive. Now the enemy is launching a fierce attack on us, and we are unable to defend ourselves, so we have fled with a third of our people to the east of Yanqi. We hope to return to the court, hoping that the Emperor can extend a helping hand to rescue us." Therefore, the court issued an edict to reassure them and opened the granaries in Yanqi to assist them. During the Zhengping period, the King of Cheshir sent his son to the court to serve as an attendant, and from then on, the Cheshir Kingdom continued to send envoys to pay tribute.
As for the Mi Kingdom, its capital is situated in a large valley east of Mount Tian, north of the Cheshir Kingdom, approximately fifteen thousand seven hundred miles from Dai County. Previously, the Mi Kingdom was under the jurisdiction of Cheshir.
The country of Yanchi is located directly south of the Chushi Kingdom, and its capital is called Yuanqu City, situated seventy li south of Baishan. It is an ancient country dating back to the Han Dynasty. Traveling from Dai to there covers twelve thousand li. Their king's surname is Long, and his name is Jiu Shibeina, a descendant of Longxi, who was previously subjugated by General Zhang Gui of Liangzhou. The capital measures only two li on each side, and the entire country has only nine cities. The country is small and impoverished, lacking any proper rules or laws. The army's weapons consist of bows, knives, armor, and spears. Their marriage customs are quite similar to those in the Central Plains. Upon a person's death, they are cremated before burial, and mourning attire is worn for seven days before being taken off. Men wear their cut hair as ornaments. Their script resembles that of Brahmanism. The common people believe in celestial deities and also practice Buddhism, particularly observing the eighth day of the second month and the eighth day of the fourth month; on these two days, the entire nation observes fasting and spiritual practices in accordance with Buddhist traditions. The climate is relatively cold, yet the land is quite fertile, yielding rice, millet, beans, and wheat, with livestock including camels and horses. They cultivate silkworms but do not harvest silk; instead, they utilize the cotton-like fibers from the cocoons. The locals take pleasure in drinking grape wine and have a strong appreciation for music. Heading south for over ten li leads to the sea, which abounds with fish, salt, bulrushes, and reeds. Nine hundred li to the east lies the Gaochang Kingdom; nine hundred li to the west lies the Kucha Kingdom, and between these two kingdoms lies a vast desert Gobi; two thousand two hundred li to the southeast is Guazhou.
Yanqi is located in the southern part of Cheshi, with its capital called Yuanqu City, seventy li south of Baishan. It has existed since the Han Dynasty. The journey from Daidi to Yanqi is quite long—around twelve thousand li! Their king's surname is Long and his given name is Jiushebina, a descendant of Longxi, who was defeated by Zhang Gui of Liangzhou. The capital, Yuanqu City, is only two li in size, and the whole country has only nine cities. The country is small, the people are poor and there are few laws and regulations. The army is equipped with bows and arrows, knives, armor, and spears. Their marriage customs are similar to those in our Central Plains region. After death, they cremate the body before burial, and mourning requires wearing mourning clothes for seven days. Men fashion their cut hair into decorations. Their script resembles that of Brahmanism. They worship both heavenly gods and Buddhism, especially observing the eighth day of the second month and the eighth day of the fourth month, when the entire population fasts, recites scriptures, and engages in devout practice. The climate there is relatively cold, but the land is fertile and produces rice, millet, beans, and wheat, alongside camels and horses. They raise silkworms, but do not harvest silk; they only use silkworm cocoons and cotton. The locals love grape wine and music. Just a dozen li to the south lies the sea, rich in fish, salt, reeds, and rushes. Nine hundred li to the east is Gaochang, and nine hundred li to the west is Kucha, both separated by deserts. Two thousand two hundred li to the southeast is Guazhou.
Yanqi is known for its treacherous terrain, often raiding our envoys. When Emperor Kublai (Shizu) learned of this, he was furious and dispatched Wanhu Dugu to launch an attack, specifically instructing him to bring lightweight provisions and to address food needs along the way.
Du arrived east of Yanqi, first capturing the cities of Zuo Hui and Yuli, and capturing all the enemies guarding the cities! Then, he continued to advance towards Yuanqu. The king of Yanqi, Jiu Shi Beina, was hiding with forty to fifty thousand troops in a strategic location outside the city to resist. Du selected brave soldiers, armed with close-range weapons, and charged directly! As a result, Jiu Shi Beina's army was routed and captured, with only Jiu Shi Beina managing to escape on horseback into the mountains. Du continued his pursuit and captured Yanqi City, leading the surrounding tribes to surrender. Yanqi, as one of the more powerful nations in the border region, had been relatively peaceful, resulting in a wealth of treasures looted from the city, including various rare and strange items, as well as livestock like camels, horses, and cattle.
At that time, Emperor Kublai Khan was residing in a palace north of the Yin Mountains. The news of Du's conquest of Yanqi quickly reached him. Upon reading the report, Emperor Kublai Khan promptly wrote a letter to Minister Cui Hao, stating, "Du led only five thousand cavalry, traveled tens of thousands of miles, captured three cities in Yanqi, and seized countless treasures and resources. This is truly unprecedented! Previous emperors spoke of conquering the Western regions but never succeeded in truly controlling them. Now I have personally taken Yanqi, isn't that impressive!" Cui Hao also quickly praised in his letter, so the emperor ordered Du to remain in Yanqi to reassure the local populace.
Initially, Jiu Shi Beina fled into the mountains, hoping he could return as king if the city remained unconquered. However, after being captured by Du, he fled to Kucha. The king of Kucha welcomed him as a son-in-law and treated him exceptionally well.
Kucha is located northwest of Weili, 170 miles south of Baishan, and its capital is called Yancheng, an ancient kingdom from the Han Dynasty. It is 12,800 li from Chang'an (referring to Chang'an). The king's surname is Bai and he is a descendant of Bai Zhen, who was conferred a title by Lü Guang of the Later Liang. The king wears colorful ribbons that hang down his back and sits on a throne shaped like a golden lion; he resides in a city with a circumference of about five or six miles. Their laws state that murder is punishable by death, and for robbery, one arm is amputated, followed by one foot. Taxes are levied based on land, and those without land pay in silver. Their customs, marriage practices, funerals, and goods are similar to those of Yanchi, except that the climate is slightly warmer. Kucha also produces fine felt, along with a variety of copper, iron, lead, deer skins, carpets, sand, green salt, realgar, rice powder, frankincense, excellent horses, yaks, and more.
To the east of Kucha lies Luntai, the site of the notorious massacre by General Li Guangli of the Han Dynasty. Three hundred miles south of Kucha lies the eastern bank of a major river known as Jishi River, identified as the Yellow River. To the east of Kucha lies Yanchi, 900 miles distant; to the south is Yutian, 1,400 miles away; to the west is Shule, 1,500 miles away; to the north are the tents of the Turks, over 600 miles away; and to the southeast is Guazhou, 300 miles away. To the east of Kucha is a border fortress called Quecheng, which is frequently plagued by bandits, and this has occurred on multiple occasions. Yuan Shizu (Kublai Khan) ordered Wandu Gui to lead a thousand cavalry to quell them, and Kucha sent Wu Jiemu Ti and others to command three thousand troops in resistance. Wandu Gui defeated them, killing over 200 enemies and capturing numerous camels and horses before returning.
The customs of the people of Kucha were quite promiscuous, as they established a "female market" where women sold themselves, and the money men paid was collected as state revenue. Kucha was known for its abundance of peacocks, flying in flocks in the valleys, which the locals caught and bred for consumption, breeding them in numbers comparable to chickens and ducks. The king's household always kept over a thousand of them. In the mountains northwest of Kucha, a greasy substance flowed out and formed small rivers, seeping underground after flowing several miles, thick and foul-smelling like porridge. However, when people who had lost their teeth consumed it, their teeth would grow back; when sick people consumed it, their ailments would be cured. Since then, Kucha frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
Gumo was located to the south of Kucha, fifteen thousand li from Chang'an, and was also under Kucha's jurisdiction. Wensu was situated in Wensu City, northwest of Gumo, fifteen thousand five hundred li from Chang'an, and was also under Kucha's jurisdiction. Yewu was located in the city of Yewu, north of Wensu, sixteen thousand five hundred li from Chang'an, and was also under Kucha's jurisdiction.
Wusun was based in Chigu City, located in the northwest direction of Kucha, eighteen thousand li from Chang'an. They were often bullied by the Rouran tribes, so they moved to the Congling Mountains, without any established cities, moving with their cattle, sheep, and horses, migrating wherever water and grass were available. During the third year of Taiyan, the court dispatched Dong Wan and others as envoys to Wusun, after that, Wusun began regularly sending envoys to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of Shule, located over a hundred miles west of Gumo and south of the White Mountains, was an ancient kingdom during the Han Dynasty. It lies 12,250 miles from Chang'an. In the later years of Emperor Gaozong's reign, the king of Shule sent a robe of Shakyamuni Buddha that was over two zhang long. Emperor Gaozong believed it might be the Buddha's garment and likely had miraculous properties, so he ordered it to be burned to verify its authenticity. Consequently, it was placed in a fierce fire and burned for a whole day, yet, surprisingly, it did not burn! Everyone present was awestruck and terrified. The king of Shule wore a gold hat shaped like a lion. They produce an abundance of rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, tin, realgar, brocade, and cotton, and they pay tribute to the Turks regularly each year. Their capital spans five li, and there are twelve large cities and dozens of smaller towns within the kingdom. The people there have six fingers on both hands and feet; children born with fewer than six fingers cannot survive. They can field an army of two thousand soldiers. To the south of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west lies the Khaganate, 1,000 miles away, to the east lies Kuche, 1,500 miles away, to the south lies Zhuju Bo, about 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast lies the Turkic Yurt, over 1,000 miles away, and to the southeast lies Guazhou, 4,600 miles away.
The Kingdom of Yuebanguo is located to the northwest of the Wusun Kingdom, approximately 1,930 li from Chang'an. Their ancestors belonged to the tribes of the Northern Xiongnu. Later, they were defeated by General Dou Xian of the Han Dynasty. The Northern Xiongnu fled to Jinwei Mountain and then ran to Kangju; those who were old, weak, ill, or disabled fled to the area north of Kuche. Their territory covers several thousand li, with a population of around 200,000. People in Liangzhou still call them "Chanyu Wang." Their customs and language are similar to those of the Gaoche people, but they are significantly cleaner than other Hu tribes. They usually cut their hair to their eyebrows and apply butter to their hair, giving it a glossy shine. They wash up three times a day before eating. To the south of Yuebanguo, there is a volcano; the stones near the volcano have been melted by the heat, flowing for dozens of li before solidifying. People use these stones for medicinal purposes, known as "shiliu huang."
I have a good relationship with the Rouran Kingdom. Their king once brought thousands of people to the Rouran Kingdom to meet their leader, Datan. After traveling over a hundred li into the Rouran Kingdom, we saw their people neither washing their clothes nor combing their hair, and they didn't wash their hands. Women licked their food with their tongues. Our king said to his ministers, "You tricked me into coming to this filthy kingdom!" and then quickly made his way back. Datan sent cavalry to chase after them, but they couldn't catch up, and from that point on, the two countries became enemies and frequently engaged in hostilities.
In the ninth year of the reign of the True Monarch, the Rurur country sent envoys to pay tribute and also brought a person skilled in peculiar and skillful techniques, claiming he could cut a person's throat and create a wound in their head that could cause several liters, or even a dou, of blood to flow out. Then, he would stuff a certain herb into their mouth for them to chew and swallow, and after a while, the bleeding would stop, with the wound healing in a month without any scars. Emperor Shizu was skeptical, so he had a death row inmate tested, and it actually worked. The man said that all the famous mountains in China had this type of herb, so the emperor had him teach this technique and rewarded him generously. He also mentioned that their country had powerful shamans; when the Rurur country came to raid, the shamans could use magic to summon heavy rains, strong winds, heavy snow, and floods, resulting in the deaths of twelve or thirteen Rurur people from freezing or drowning.
That year, the Rurur country sent envoys again to pay tribute, requesting to join our army in attacking the Rurur. Emperor Shizu was very pleased and ordered a nationwide military mobilization, with the King of Huainan as the vanguard to attack the Rurur. He also ordered that their morale-boosting music be included in the music office. From then on, the Rurur country frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Zhezhiban country, with its capital in Zhezhiban City, is located to the west of Shule country, 12,620 li away from Daizhou. To the east of this country lies Mount Panhenna, known for its high-quality iron and lions.
The Mimi country, with its capital in Mimi City, is located to the west of Zhezhiban country, 11,600 li away from Daizhou. In the first year of the Zhengping era, they sent envoys to pay tribute with a black camel. To the east of their country is a mountain called Yuximan Mountain, which yields gold, silver, jade, and has abundant iron mines.
The Xiwanjin country, with its capital in Xiwanjin City, is located to the west of Mimi country, 12,720 li away from Daizhou. To the south of this country is a mountain called Jiasena Mountain, which is known for its lions. They frequently send envoys to pay tribute.
The Niomi country, with its capital in Niomi City, is located to the west of Xiwanjin country, 22,828 li away from Daizhou.
Luona was formerly called Da Yuan. Its capital city is Guishan City, located 14,450 li from Daizhou in the northwest of Shule. In the third year of Taihe, they sent envoys to offer sweat-blooded horses as tribute, and from then on, they frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
Now, about Sute, it lies by a vast marsh to the west of the Congling Mountains, formerly known as Yancai or Wenna Sha. It is located to the northwest of Kangju, 16,000 li from our Dai region (Dai Commandery)! Previously, the Xiongnu killed their king and took over Sute, and by the time of King Hulü, it was already in its third generation. Sute merchants used to trade around Liangzhou, but after the Great Tang conquered Guzang (now Wuwei), all the Sute merchants were captured. When Emperor Gaozong ascended the throne, the King of Sute sent envoys asking for their release, and the Emperor agreed. Since then, Sute has never sent envoys to pay tribute again.
Persia, with its capital called Suli, is located to the northwest of Niu Mi, and in ancient times it was known as the Tiao Zhi Kingdom. It is about 24,228 li from our land, quite far! Suli covers an area of about ten li, with a population of over one hundred thousand people. A river runs through the city, flowing southward. The land is flat and abundant in gold, silver, bronze, coral, amber, carnelian, agate, and many pearls, topaz, lapis lazuli, quartz, garnet, diamond, fire opal, wrought iron, copper, tin, cinnabar, mercury, along with various silk fabrics such as brocade, satin, and damask, red deer skin, and many spices like incense, turmeric, camphor, sandalwood, and others like pepper, cardamom, rock honey, jujube, nutmeg, myrobalan, saltpeter, and orpiment. The climate is hot, and every household must store ice blocks for use. The land is sandy and is irrigated by water diversion. The grains and livestock in Persia are similar to those in our Central Plains, though they lack rice, millet, and foxtail millet. They produce famous good horses, large donkeys, and camels, and it's common to see swift horses that can cover seven hundred li in a day; wealthy families can even raise thousands of camels. There are also white elephants, lions, and enormous bird eggs. There's a bird that looks like a leather pouch, has wings, can fly but not high, eats both grass and meat, and even consumes fire! It's truly amazing!
The Persian king is named S. He sits on a bed covered with golden sheepskin, wearing a crown adorned with golden flowers, dressed in brocade robes and a matching shawl, adorned with real jewels. The local customs are: men have short hair, wear white leather hats, wear open-fronted shirts with shorter sides, wear scarves, and are decorated with brocade. Women wear long tunics, shawls, with hair styled in a bun at the front, flowing loose at the back, adorned with gold and silver floral ornaments, strung with colorful beads hanging on their shoulders.
The king has more than ten palaces in the country, similar to the imperial retreats of our Chinese emperors. He visits these palaces every April and returns to the royal palace in October. After ascending to the throne, the king secretly selects the most virtuous of his sons, writes down his name in a letter, seals it in the treasury, and no other sons or ministers know about it. After the king's death, the letter is opened, and the one whose name is written inherits the throne, while the other sons are sent to various border regions to serve, never to see each other again.
The local people call the king "Yilad," the queen "Fang Bushuai," and the king's sons are referred to as "Shaye." Important officials include: Mohutan, overseeing domestic trials; Nihouhan, responsible for the treasury and grain storage; Dibei, handling documents and various affairs; Er Luohe Di, overseeing the king's domestic affairs; Gong Bobo, responsible for the national army. These officials have subordinates who handle their respective duties. Their armies are equipped with armor, long spears, round shields, crossbows, and bows. They also ride elephants in battle, each elephant accompanied by a hundred soldiers.
Their criminal law is as follows: serious offenders are suspended from a pole and then shot to death with arrows; those guilty of moderate crimes are imprisoned, but will be released when the new king ascends the throne; minor offenders may have their noses cut off, heads shaved, or half their hair cut, with a sign hung around their necks to mark their shame; those guilty of robbery face life imprisonment; men who violate noble women are exiled, while women have their ears and noses cut off. In terms of taxes, they pay taxes in silver based on the area of land they own.
These people worship the Fire God and the Heavenly God. Their writing is completely different from our Chinese characters. Many people take their sisters as wives, and there is considerable disorder and little regard for hierarchy; they are considered the least particular among all the barbarian tribes. Beautiful girls aged ten and older are taken into the king's palace, and those who have made contributions can also receive some. Most corpses are simply discarded on the mountains, and they wear mourning clothes for a month. Outside the city lives a group known as the "impure people," who handle funerals. If they enter the city, they must ring bells to set themselves apart from others. They celebrate the New Year in June, with special significance given to July 7th and December 1st. On these two days, everyone invites one another to meals, sings, dances, and has a great time. Every year on the 20th day of the first month, they also pay tribute to their ancestors.
The Kingdom of the Divine Turtle sent envoys to present tribute and wrote a letter saying: "The Son of Heaven of the great nation is sent by Heaven. We hope that the place where the sun rises will always be the territory of the Han dynasty's Son of Heaven. The King of Persia and we both greatly admire the Han dynasty." The court gladly accepted this, and since then, they have frequently come to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of Fuluni, whose capital is Fuluni City, is situated north of the Kingdom of Persia, approximately 27,320 li from our Han capital, Chang'an. They construct their cities from stone. To the east of the city, a large river flows south, home to a type of bird that resembles a human, and others resembling camels and horses, all of which have wings. They typically inhabit the water and die as soon as they emerge. To the north of the city lies Yunni Mountain, known for its silver, coral, amber, and a large population of lions.
The Sezhixian Kingdom has its capital called Sezhixian City, located northwest of Xiwanjin, 12,940 li from Chang'an. The terrain is flat, and it is known for its abundant fruits.
The Jiaseni Kingdom has its capital Jiaseni City, located south of Xiwanjin, 12,900 li from Chang'an. It produces red salt and has many fruits.
The Bozhi Kingdom has its capital Bozhi City, located south of Jiaseni, 13,320 li from Chang'an. It is known for its abundant fruits.
The Muzhi Kingdom has its capital Muzhi City, located southwest of Niomi, 22,920 li from Chang'an. The terrain is flat, and the food and supplies are quite similar to those in China.
The Afutaihan Kingdom has its capital Afutaihan City, located west of Niomi, 23,720 li from Chang'an. The terrain is flat, and there are many fruits.
The Husi Mi Kingdom has its capital Husi Mi City, located west of Afutaihan, 24,700 li from Chang'an. The terrain is flat, and it is known for producing silver, amber, and even lions, as well as many fruits.
The Nuoseboluo Kingdom has its capital Boluo City, located south of Niomi, 23,428 li from Chang'an. The terrain is flat, suitable for growing rice and wheat, though it has very little arable land, but it is rich in fruits, with five varieties.
The earliest mentioned country is called Zaojiazhiguo, with its capital Zaojiazhicheng, located west of Niomi, 23,728 li from the capital at that time, Daixian (now Datong, Shanxi). The terrain there is flat, with very little arable land. Rice and wheat must be imported from neighboring countries, but it is rich in fruits, with five varieties.
The next country is Jiabudan, with its capital Jiabudan City, located northwest of Xiwanjin, 12,780 li from Daixian. The terrain is flat, suitable for planting rice and wheat, and there are many fruits, also with five varieties.
Now let’s talk about Zhesheguo, which was previously called Kangju, located northwest of Poluo, 15,450 li from Daixian. In the third year of Taiyan, they even sent envoys to pay tribute, and they have maintained this tradition ever since.
The Jiabai Kingdom was once part of the territory of Xiumi Xihao, with its capital called Hemo City, located west of Shache, 13,000 li from Daixian. Their people live in the valleys.
Zhexuemomosun Kingdom, formerly the territory of the Marquis of Shuangmi, with the capital called Shuangmi City, located to the west of Gabai Kingdom, 13,500 miles away from Daixian. They also live in the valley.
Qiandun Kingdom, formerly the territory of the Marquis of Guishuang, with the capital called Huzhao City, located to the west of Zhexuemomosun Kingdom, 13,560 miles away from Daixian. They also live in the valley.
Fudisha Kingdom, formerly the territory of the Marquis of Pangdun, with the capital called Baomao City, located to the west of Qiandun Kingdom, 13,660 miles away from Daixian. They also live in the valley.
Yanfuyeguo Kingdom, formerly the territory of the Marquis of Gaofu, with the capital called Gaofu City, located to the south of Fudisha Kingdom, 13,760 miles away from Daixian. They also live in the valley.
Da Yuezhi Kingdom, with the capital called Lujiashi City, located to the west of Fudisha Kingdom, 14,500 miles away from Daixian. They are adjacent to the Ruanruan in the north, often bullied by the Ruanruan, so they later moved to Boluo City in the west, 2,100 miles away from Fudisha. Their king, Jiduoluo, is particularly brave, leading soldiers across the mountains, invading North India, and making five countries north of Gandhara submit to him. During the period of Emperor Shizu (referring to Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei), the Da Yuezhi people came to the capital to do business, claiming they could cast multicolored glass with stones. So the court allowed them to mine in the mountains and cast glass in the capital. When it was done, the luster was even more stunning than that of imports from the West! The emperor ordered it to decorate the palace, which could hold over a hundred people, shining brightly. Those who saw it were astonished, believing it was crafted by immortals. Since then, Chinese glass became cheaper, and people no longer cherished it as much.
The last one is Anxi Kingdom, situated west of the Congling Mountains, with the capital called Weisou City. It borders Kangju in the north and Persia in the west, northwest of the Da Yuezhi Kingdom, 21,500 miles away from Daixian.
There was once a country called Daqin, also referred to as Li Xuan, whose capital was An Du. It is located west of Tiao Zhi, across the bay, about ten thousand miles from Dai Di (an ancient place name referring to the area around modern-day Datong in Shanxi), which is approximately thirty-nine thousand four hundred miles away. It is situated by the sea, similar to our Bohai Sea, oriented east and west relative to Bohai, which could be seen as a natural law. Daqin's territory spans six thousand miles, located between two seas, with flat terrain where people's houses are scattered like stars across the landscape.
The capital of the Kingdom of Great Qin is divided into five cities, each a square with sides of five li, which has a perimeter of sixty li. The king resides in the central city. Each city has eight officials who manage the four directions, and the royal city also has eight officials who manage the four cities. In the event of major national issues or difficult decisions in the four cities, the officials from the four cities gather at the royal palace to discuss, and the king personally listens to their opinions before making decisions. The king goes on a tour every three years to understand the people's situation. If someone is wronged and complains to the king, the relevant officials may face reprimands or, in serious cases, dismissal, and they must recommend capable individuals to take their place. The people of Great Qin are tall and robust, and their clothing and banners imitate the styles of the Central Plains, which is why the countries of the Western Regions refer to it as Great Qin. This place produces abundant grains and mulberry, with people who primarily engage in sericulture and agriculture, and it also produces many treasures, including agate, jade, divine turtles, white horses (which have a reddish coat), pearls, and luminous jade. To the southeast of Great Qin, there is a connection to Jiaozhi, and there are waterways leading to Yizhou's Yongchang County, which also yields many rare and exotic treasures. To the west of Great Qin, beyond the sea, there is a river flowing southwest. On the west side of the river are the Southern and Northern Mountains; west of the Northern Mountain lies the Red Water, and further west is the White Jade Mountain. Beyond the White Jade Mountain is the Mountain of the Western Queen Mother, where the jade stones look like clouds. Following the coastline from the western border of the Anxi Kingdom, one can reach Great Qin, approximately over forty thousand li away. Watching the sun, moon, and stars in that country is quite similar to how we see them in the Central Plains, while ancient historical texts say that walking a hundred li west from Tiaozhi leads to the place where the sun sets, which is quite an exaggeration.
Next, let's talk about the Agou Qiang Kingdom, located to the southwest of Shache, thirteen thousand li away from Dadi. In the western part of this country lies a mountain known as County Du Mountain, which has a four-hundred-li path with many narrow walkways. Below the walkways is a bottomless abyss, and when people walk along the walkways, they have to hold onto ropes to get across, which is why it is called County Du Mountain. This area produces grains and various fruits, and transactions in the markets are conducted with money. People live in palatial houses and possess weapons, and the region also produces gold and pearls.
The last is the country of Polu, located to the northwest of Aguoqiang Country, 13,900 li away from Daidi. The climate there is hot and humid, known for its Shu horses, flat terrain, and similar products and customs to Aguoqiang Country.
The country of Xiaoyuezhi, whose capital is Fulousha City, has a king who is the son of the former king of Dayuezhi, Jiduo. Jiduo was driven away by the Xiongnu, and after moving west, he let his son guard this city, hence the name Xiaoyuezhi. It is southwest of Polu, 16,600 li away from Daidi (probably referring to present-day Datong, Shanxi). They used to live in the area of Xiping and Zhangye, and their attire is similar to the Qiang people. They used gold and silver coins for trading. Like the Xiongnu people, they are nomadic, moving with water and grass. Ten li east of their city is a pagoda, which has a circumference of 350 steps and stands 80 zhang tall. It took 842 years from the completion of the pagoda to the eighth year of Wuding, which is commonly referred to as the "Hundred Zhang Buddha Image."
The country of Jibin, whose capital is Shanjian City, is southwest of Polu, 14,200 li away from Daidi. It is located between four mountains. The country stretches 800 li from east to west and 300 li from north to south. The terrain is flat, and the climate is mild. Here, there are alfalfa, various weeds, rare trees, as well as sandalwood, locust trees, catalpa trees, and bamboo. They can grow grains, and people fertilize their vegetable gardens and fields. The water table is high, enabling the cultivation of rice. In winter, they consume raw vegetables. They are skilled in carving, intricate hollowing, and weaving ji (a type of woolen fabric). They make utensils out of gold, silver, copper, and tin, and engage in market transactions using currency. The livestock they raise is similar to that of other countries. They frequently send envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Tuhulu lies 12,000 miles away from Dai. To its east lies Fanyang, and to its west lies Xiwangjin, with a distance of 2,000 miles between the two countries. To the south are continuous mountain ranges, whose names are unknown. To the north is Persia, 10,000 miles away. Within Tuhulu lies a city named Boti, spanning 60 miles. A river called Hanlou flows westward to the south of the city. The land here is fertile for growing grains, and there are numerous fine horses, camels, and mules. Their king once sent envoys to pay tribute.
Fuhuo lies 17,000 miles from Dai. To its east is Afushi, to its west is Meishui, with a distance of 1,000 miles between the two countries. To the south are continuous mountain ranges, whose names are unknown. To the north is Qisha, 1,500 miles away. In the country, there is a city called Fuhuo, with a circumference of 70 miles. This region is ideal for cultivating grains and grapes, and it produces horses, camels, and mules. The king owns a palace crafted from gold, beneath which stand seven golden camels, each three feet tall. Their king also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Nantianzhu lies 31,500 miles away from Dai. Here lies a city named Fuchou, with a circumference of ten miles, noted for its pearls and coral production. Three hundred miles east of the city is a city called Balai, which produces gold, sandalwood, stone honey, and grapes. The land is suitable for growing grains. During Emperor Shizong's reign, their king Paroha once sent envoys to tribute fine horses, gold, and silver, and since then, they have regularly sent envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Luo is far away from us, a full 31,000 miles! In this country, there is a city called Wuxi, with a river called Yanqi to the north, flowing westward. There are white elephants in that area, as well as a tree called Amoli, whose bark can be woven into fabric, and various crops can be grown in the land. During Emperor Shizong's reign, the king of Luo, Fuduo Manduo, also sent local specialties, and since then, they have regularly sent envoys to pay tribute.
Badou Kingdom is even further away from us, 51,000 li! To the east lies Duowudang Kingdom, to the west is Zhan Na Kingdom, separated by 750 li; to the south is Jilingjia Kingdom, to the north lies Funa Fuqie Kingdom, separated by 900 li. Badou Kingdom is abundant in gold, silver, and jewels, along with white elephants, water buffaloes, yaks, grapes, a variety of fruits, and its grain production is also impressive.
The He-da Kingdom is a branch of the Yuezhi tribe; others claim they are a branch of the Gaoche, and their ancestral home is in the northern region of the Sai. They live south of Jinshan and west of Yutian, with their capital lying over 200 li south of Moshui, 11,100 li away from Chang'an. Their capital is called Badaiyan City, which is the city that houses the royal palace. The city stretches over ten li, featuring numerous temples and pagodas adorned with gold. Their customs are reminiscent of Turkic customs. It is customary for several brothers to share a single wife; if a man has no brothers, his wife wears a hat with a single horn; if he has brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases with the number of brothers. They prefer to adorn their clothing with tassels, and they keep their hair cut very short. Their language differs from that of the Rouran, Gaoche, and other nomadic groups. They have a population of around 100,000, without fixed towns; they constantly migrate in search of water and pasture, residing in felt tents, moving to cooler places in the summer and warmer places in the winter. They keep their wives separated, often hundreds of li apart. Their king travels extensively, changing his residence each month, only staying in one place for three consecutive months during particularly cold winters. The throne does not automatically pass to the king's son, as long as the son or other capable relatives can directly inherit the throne when the king dies. They lack carts, relying solely on sedan chairs, and possess numerous camels and horses. Their punishments are severe; thieves face beheading regardless of the value of what they steal, and the theft of one item incurs a penalty of ten. When someone dies, wealthy individuals construct stone tombs, while the poor simply dig a hole to bury their dead, placing the deceased's belongings in the tomb. Their people are known for their fierceness and combat skills. The Kangju, Yutian, Shale, Anxi, and around thirty other small states in the Western Regions all pay tribute to them; thus, they refer to themselves as a great power. They engage in intermarriage with the Rouran. Since the Tai'an period, they have consistently dispatched envoys to pay tribute. Towards the end of the Zhengguang period, they sent an envoy bearing a lion as tribute; however, upon reaching Gaoping, they encountered a rebellion led by Wanqiu Chunv, prompting them to remain there. Once Wanqiu Chunv was subdued, the lion was eventually sent to the capital. Following the Yongxi period, they ceased sending tribute.
In the beginning, during the Xiping era, Emperor Sui Zong of Northern Wei sent Wang Fuzi, Song Yun, and Sha Men Fali to the Western Regions in search of Buddhist scriptures. At that time, there was a monk named Huisheng who went with the mission to the kingdom of Jibin, which is located 1,500 miles south of Cao and 6,500 miles east of Guazhou. Huisheng returned only during the Zhengguang period. He couldn't recall exactly how many countries he had traveled through or the distances between the mountains and rivers; he only vaguely talked about it.
Zhujuguo lies to the west of Yutian. The people there live on the mountains, grow wheat, have many forests and fruit trees, and all practice Buddhism. Their language is similar to that of the people of Yutian, and they are subordinate to Jibin.
Kapanduo country is east of Congling and west of Zhu Jibo. The river flows through this country and then flows northeast. There are high mountains there, and frost and snow accumulate in the summer. They also practice Buddhism and Taoism, and are governed by Jibin.
Bohe country is west of Kapanduo country. The climate there is extremely cold, and people and livestock live together, digging burrows for shelter. There is also a very large snow mountain, which appears as a silver peak from a distance. The locals primarily eat flatbreads and porridge, drink barley wine, and wear felt clothes. Bohe country has two roads, one leading west to Jibin and the other southwest to Wuchang country, which is also under Jibin's jurisdiction.
Bozhi country is southwest of Bohe country. The country is small, the people are poor, living by the mountains and valleys, and the king struggles to govern the entire kingdom. There are three ponds, and legend has it that the Dragon King resides in the large pond, the Dragon King's wife lives in the medium-sized pond, and the Dragon King's children live in the small pond. Travelers passing through must make offerings to ensure a safe passage; otherwise, they may face obstacles like wind and snow.
The Kingdom of Shami is located to the south of the Kingdom of Bozhi, in the mountains. They do not practice Buddhism but believe in various deities and are under the rule of the Yeda. To the east of Shami is the Kingdom of Bolule, which has treacherous paths that can only be crossed by iron cables, with bottomless depths. During the Xiping era, Song Yun and his companions ultimately failed to reach it.
The Kingdom of Wuchang is to the south of Shami. To the north is the Congling mountain range, and to the south is Tianzhu. The Brahmins form the local upper class. Many Brahmins understand astronomy, calendrical science, and divination, and the king must consult them before making any decisions. Wuchang has fertile land and a wealth of fruits; they irrigate their fields, leading to bountiful harvests of rice and wheat. They practice Buddhism and have many temples and stupas, with ornate architecture. When local people have disputes, they use medicine to resolve them; the guilty party goes mad, while the innocent remain unharmed. They follow the principle of non-violence, and those who commit capital offenses are only exiled to Mount Ling. To the southwest of Wuchang is Mount Danté, where temples have been built, and food is transported by a few donkeys. No one supervises at the foot of the mountain, and the donkeys can transport back and forth on their own.
The Kingdom of Qianduo is to the west of Wuchang, originally named Yebo, and was renamed after being conquered by the Yeda. Their king belongs to the Qile people and has ruled for two generations. They are warlike and fought against the Kingdom of Jibin for three years, causing widespread discontent among the people. They have seven hundred war elephants, each carrying ten soldiers, with knives tied to their trunks for battle. Seven li southeast of the capital of Qianduo stands a stupa, seventy zhang high and three hundred steps in circumference, referred to as the "Queli Buddha Stupa."
Kang State is actually a descendant of Kangju. They have always moved around without a fixed place to live, and this has been the case since the Han Dynasty, continuously. Their king, whose surname is Wen, is of Yuezhi descent. They used to live in Zhaowu, north of the Qilian Mountains, but after being defeated by the Xiongnu, they fled west beyond the Congling Mountains and established their kingdom. The king's descendants and brothers each claim kingship, so the countries surrounding Kang State all use Zhaowu as their surname, to show that they remember their origins.
The current king, Shifu Bi, is known for his generosity and popularity among his people. His wife is the daughter of the Turkic Dadu Khan. Their capital is located in a city called Aludi on the Sabao River, which is densely populated. National affairs are managed collectively by three ministers. The king sports long hair, wears a gold hat set with seven different gemstones, and dresses in silk and white layered robes; the queen styles her hair in a high bun and wears a black headscarf. Men wear their hair short and don brocade robes. Kang State is regarded as a powerful nation, and many countries in the Western Regions pay tribute to it, such as Mi Country, Shi Country, Cao Country, He Country, An Country, Xiao An Country, Nasebo Country, Wunahe Country, Mu Country, and so on, all of which have pledged allegiance to Kang State.
They have a legal code kept in the ancestral hall, which serves as a reference during sentencing. Those guilty of serious crimes will face extermination of their entire clan, while ordinary criminals face the death penalty, and thieves may have their feet amputated. The people of Kangguo all have prominent cheekbones, high nose bridges, and bushy beards. They are skilled in business, and most trade with various ethnic groups from the Western Regions occurs in Kangguo. They have instruments like drums, pipa, and five-stringed zithers. Kangguo's marriage and funeral customs resemble those of the Turks. They have ancestral temples, where they honor their ancestors every June, and countries around them come to participate. They follow Buddhism and write in Hu script. Kangguo has a mild climate that is ideal for grain cultivation, and the people are diligent in farming, growing vegetables and fruits, and the trees thrive. They raise horses, camels, donkeys, and yaks, and produce gold, agate, incense, aloe wood, musk, chamois leather, felt, silk, and brocade. They are known for their wine production, and wealthy families can store over a thousand measures of wine, with good harvests every year. During the Taiyuan period, Kangguo began sending envoys to present local specialties, but this contact eventually ceased. Historians say: Although there were exchanges between the Western Regions and the Wei Dynasty, there was persistent unrest in the region, and the Emperor of the Wei Dynasty was too busy trying to unify the country to deal with the Western Regions. Therefore, the exchanges between the Wei Dynasty and the Western Regions primarily aimed to maintain relations and prevent them from breaking off.
