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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Book of Sui （隋書）

Published: 10 January 2025

Created: 10 January 2025

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It is said that in ancient times, mighty rulers would first measure the land to divide cities, arrange the population according to the land area, assess the land's yield, estimate the resources in the mountains and marshes, strictly follow the laws, organize the agricultural calendar effectively, and enable farmers and merchants to pursue their livelihoods, allowing them to develop their careers well. The "Book of Documents" states that all kinds of goods should flow smoothly so that everyone can obtain what they need. The "Rites of Zhou" records that the Ministry of Finance is in charge of the system of nine tributes, and the country's financial expenditures are classified into strict tiers. This shows that the use of resources must be in accordance with regulations and must be moderate in order to support officials, military operations, disaster relief, border pacification, and maintain national security and the people's well-being, which embodies the fundamental principles of governance and national stability.

From Xuanyuan and Zhuanxu to Yao and Shun, these sagacious rulers fostered production development in alignment with the people's circumstances, never appropriated their harvests or exploited their labor. Taxes were light, and corvée was minimal, which is a timeless lesson from the Five Emperors and Three Sovereigns. As the saying goes, "A ruler who is good at governing the people will cherish their labor, thereby making them prosperous." If this principle is violated, and the ruler greedily drains the people dry, like a bottomless pit, the plundering of the people's wealth will breed resentment, and their labor being exploited will lead to rebellion. In the past, Yu the Great established a nine-tier tax system, resulting in a flourishing and harmonious society; the Zhou Dynasty implemented an eleven-tax-one system, leading to songs that celebrated an era of peace and prosperity.

However, later on, during the relocation of the Eastern Zhou capital to Luoyang, the feudal lords disregarded the established norms. Duke Xuan of Lu began to levy taxes based on acreage, while the state of Zheng implemented the Qiu Fu system, entirely discarding the institutions of the previous kings. Qin Shi Huang emerged from the western regions, unified the country, ruled through harsh punishments and showed no compassion for the populace, demanded vast amounts of manpower and resources, stationed heavy troops on the borders, resulting in dire poverty for those living in border areas. Emperor Gaozu of Han inherited the broken situation from the Qin Dynasty, implemented a policy of one tax for every fifteen units of land, which was continued by Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, resulting in a full treasury. Emperor Wu of Han inherited this wealthy treasury, but wasted it on extravagance, expanding territories, and attacking the Xiongnu, depleting the treasury. Palaces towered into the sky, lavish tours were undertaken both at home and abroad, roads were constructed during droughts, and food was collected during famines, resulting in a drastic population decline and rampant banditry. Various strange tax systems emerged, with taxes so heavy that even children and vehicles were taxed.

Emperor Guangwu of Han restored the Han Dynasty and reinstated the policy of light taxes and minimal labor, leading to a lighter tax burden, which could be considered a measure for long-term stability. However, Emperor Ling of Han initiated extensive construction projects, built the Hongdu Gate, and openly sold official positions and titles, which fostered a corrupt system of bribery and graft at both the central and local levels. The regular tax system of the Han Dynasty, including land tribute and various special products, was ordered by the emperor to be paid in advance to the central government under the pretext of "guiding the way," leading to a nationwide prevalence of corrupt officials, causing harm to the people. From the Wei and Jin Dynasties to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, although the financial expenditures and tax burdens varied, overall they did not escalate to the point of oppressing the populace, but the political chaos led to an imperfect tax system.

Emperor Wen of Sui defeated the separatist forces in Jiangnan, bringing peace to the country. He led a simple life and put all his money into the national treasury. In the 17th year of Kaihuang, the population grew significantly, and all the warehouses across the country were filled with grain. All rewards and expenses did not exceed the budget, with the capital's warehouses overflowing and grain even stacked in the corridors. Emperor Gaozu simply suspended tax collection that year and distributed benefits to the common people.

After Yang Guang ascended to the throne, the country became prosperous, but he had a special liking for luxury and indulgence, indulging in whatever pleasures he desired. He started building the eastern capital of Luoyang, engaging in extravagant construction projects. Having previously served as a prince, he personally pacified Jiangnan and designed Luoyang by referencing the palaces of the Liang and Chen dynasties. Wild geese flew over Mangshan, pontoon bridges spanned the Luo River, and magnificent structures such as the Golden Gate and the Elephant Terrace sprang up, towering into the sky. Mountains were leveled, rivers were diverted, creating a beautiful landscape, with trees from the mountains planted in forests and Mangshan transformed into a royal garden. The construction of the Great Wall and the digging of canals consumed vast amounts of manpower and resources, with donkeys and horses requisitioned from the common people, resulting in countless deaths and the ruin of many families.

Later, Yang Guang launched multiple expeditions against the Turks, leading his troops far and wide, continuously transporting food and forage to the front lines. Countless soldiers fell on the battlefield, and many died from exhaustion. Even if half of the soldiers returned alive, every year, young men from every household had to go to the border to fight, with cries of parting heard everywhere. The elderly, infirm, and disabled were left behind to tend to the fields, with barely enough food to eat, and the cloth woven by women could not meet the army's needs. Throughout the country, the emperor's palaces often housed tens of thousands of people, with all expenses relying on local governments. On top of taxes, various levies had to be hastily gathered, without regard for the well-being of the common people. Officials took advantage of the situation to exploit and embezzle funds, siphoning off a significant portion for themselves.

Valuable food from distant lands must be delivered to the palace kitchen. The feathers of rare birds and strange beasts are used for decoration, and the government buys these items at prices several times their original value. The common people are suffering greatly and fleeing their homes. Officials knock on doors until dawn, and fierce dogs bark incessantly. From Yan and Zhao to Qi and Lu, from Jianghuai to Xiangyang, from the Eastern Zhou Luoyang to the Western Qin Longshan, there are rebellions and bandits everywhere. The palaces have turned into a wilderness of weeds, and the villages no longer have smoke rising from their chimneys. People are killing one another, with four or five out of every ten perishing. The Guanzhong region is plagued by epidemics, and droughts have led to poor harvests. Yang Guang's brother, the Prince of Dai, distributed his stored grain to aid the victims. People from hundreds of miles away come to receive grain relief. Officials are corrupt and the government is in chaos. Everything must be purchased with money, and things drag on for months without resolution. People are stranded in the wilderness, unable to return home, with mountains of dead bodies piling up, too many to count.

Although the Sui Dynasty emperors tried to govern the country, in the end, it still perished due to these reasons. Sima Qian wrote "Pingzhun Book," and Ban Gu wrote "Shihuo Zhi," summarizing the gains and losses of economic policies over thousands of years. Since then, no historian has been able to provide a more comprehensive view.

You see, when people first begin to survive, their basic needs are food, clothing, shelter, and transportation. Enlightened emperors promoted agricultural development through land reclamation and the division of fields, and facilitated commercial circulation to promote prosperity among the people. When the people thrive, education follows suit, and virtues like benevolence and righteousness flourish naturally. If the people are impoverished, they will turn to banditry, and at that time, punishment alone cannot suppress it. Thus, I have written this "Shihuo Zhi" and placed it at the end of the preceding texts.

After the chaos of the Jin Dynasty in the Central Plains, the emperor relocated to Jiangnan, and many common folks followed in fleeing. These people were then called "refugees." They used their hometown names to name new counties, living scattered about, as there weren't many locals in Jiangnan originally. The customs in Jiangnan involved farming with fire and water; the land was low-lying and humid, with little to no savings. Some non-Han tribes accepted the rule of the court, and the court collected tributes from them based on their strength to enrich the national treasury. Some chieftains in Lingnan, because of the local abundance of precious items such as jade, pearls, rhinoceros horns, and ivory, held considerable influence, and the court mostly appointed them as officials in order to collect their tributes. This continued through the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen Dynasties. The court needed various materials, so they collected them locally through temporary levies, without a fixed system or laws. Each prefecture and county would set taxes based on local production. Those who did not register in the prefecture or county household registry were called "vagrants," and their taxes were not fixed. The court would give them preferential treatment based on how much tax they actually paid, which were less burdensome than regular taxes.

Most of the people in the capital are servants of the nobility, such as tenants, accountants, and dinner guests, who are exempt from labor service. Officials of the first and second ranks have no more than forty tenant households; those of the third and fourth ranks have thirty-five households; those of the fifth rank have thirty households; those of the sixth rank have twenty households; those of the seventh rank have fifteen households; those of the eighth rank have ten households; those of the ninth rank have five households. The grain from tenant households is shared proportionally with their landlords. Regarding accountants, officials of the first and second ranks are assigned three accountants; those of the third and fourth ranks are assigned two; those of the fifth and sixth ranks, along with officials such as palace guards, palace supervisors, military supervisors, chief historians, marshals, and various palace guards, are assigned one accountant. These accountants are included in the count of tenant households. Officials of the sixth rank or above can have three dinner guests; those of the seventh and eighth ranks can have two; those of the ninth rank, along with officials such as bearers, bird catchers, advance scouts, crossbow marshals, and various palace guards, are assigned one dinner guest. These dinner guests must all be registered on the household register.

Regarding taxes, adult men must pay two zhang of cloth, two zhang of silk, three liang of silk, and eight liang of cotton, as well as eight chi of salary cloth, three liang and two fen of salary cotton, five stones of rented rice, and two stones of salary rice. Adult women pay half of these taxes. Individuals between the ages of sixteen and sixty are deemed adults, where sixteen-year-old men are taxed at half rate, eighteen-year-olds paying full taxes, and those aged sixty-six being exempt from taxes. Women are considered adults upon marriage, while those unmarried are considered adults at the age of twenty. Adult men must serve no more than twenty days each year, with one in every eighteen individuals assigned to transportation duties. The land tax is two dou of rice for each mu. That's about how it was. Back then, the measurements were different from today's standards, with one dou equaling three times the current dou, one liang equaling three times the current liang, and one chi equaling 1.2 times the current chi.

Speaking of which, at that time, there were several granaries in the capital city, including Longshou Granary, also known as Shitoujin Granary, as well as Taicheng Granary, Nantang Granary, Changping Granary, Dongxi Taicang, and Donggong Granary, totaling over five hundred thousand stones of grain stored. Outside the capital city, there were Yuzhang Granary, Diaoji Granary, and Qiantang Granary, all of which were large-scale reserve granaries. Other provinces and counties also had their own granaries. Overall, since the chaos of Hou Jing, the country's finances have been very tight.

Officials and military officers in the capital city could only receive a fixed amount of grain each month. Many of them also had to hold a position in a county in order to receive additional salary. Officials in major provinces like Yangzhou and Xuzhou held ranks similar to the Ling and Fu officials in the court; officials in smaller provinces like Ningzhou and Guizhou held ranks similar to military officers; officials in counties like Danyang, Wu County, and Kuaiji held ranks comparable to the Prince's Attendant and the Minister of Personnel; officials in smaller counties like Gaoliang and Jinkang were only at the level of the third class. Officials in large counties were in the sixth class, while officials in smaller counties needed two promotions to reach the first class. There were significant differences in official ranks, which are not listed here. The salaries of officials in various provinces and counties, such as rice, silk, cloth, cotton, and other items, had to be sent to various granaries. When distributing salaries to governors and county magistrates, they had to first see how many officials, both military and civilian, were under their jurisdiction before deciding how much to distribute based on the emperor's orders. When distributing these salaries, the soldiers' share was also included, so the actual amount officials could take home was quite small.

When princes and princesses married and left the palace, they needed things like clothes, jewelry, as well as wine, rice, fish, meat, sesame oil, candles, and so on, all of which were supplied by the court. However, for those princes and sons-in-law who received additional salaries, the court would not supply anything extra. When they stepped down and returned to the capital, the court would continue to provide for them.

After the fall of Yan'an, the power of the Wei Kingdom weakened day by day, chaos reigned everywhere, leaving the common people struggling to survive, and both farmers and merchants had nothing to eat. The government forced the common people into military service, but still lacked money, leading to immense suffering among the common people, making life unbearable. Later, the Six Towns' rebellion led to a large number of people fleeing to the outskirts of the Qi and Jin Kingdoms to beg for food and shelter. Qi Emperor Shenwu seized this opportunity to establish his dominance.

After Emperor Xiaowu of Wei moved westward, wars broke out every year, and the Yellow River and Luo River basins turned into wastelands. In the first year of Tianping, Emperor Xiaowu of Wei moved the capital to Ye City and allocated 1.3 million stones of grain to aid the impoverished. At that time, fewer than 10,000 people accompanied the Emperor on his westward migration, and the rest moved to the north, where the court supplied them with a fixed ration of grain and distributed cloth for clothing during the spring and autumn seasons. In addition to normal taxes, the court also purchased grain in areas of abundant harvest, traded it for cloth, and stored it as reserves. Granaries were built at ferry crossings along the Yellow River, preparing to facilitate transportation. Salt fields were established in coastal areas such as Cangzhou, Yingzhou, Youzhou, and Qingzhou, overseeing the production and sale of salt for revenue, which was enough to cover military and national expenses each year.

Since then, the national treasury became well-stocked, and even during droughts and famines, grain could be distributed from the granaries to assist the populace. During the Yuanxiang and Xinghe periods, there were several consecutive years of bumper harvests, and grain was inexpensive, costing only nine coins per dou. However, during this period, the laws were lenient, and many people evaded taxes and moved about freely. Emperor Wenxuan of Qi sent Sun Teng and Gao Longzhi to count the unregistered population, finding over six hundred thousand people. He then sent these immigrants back to their original places, which boosted the country's tax revenue.

When Emperor Wenxuan's son, Emperor Wenxiang, ascended to the throne, Hou Jing rebelled in the north, and the Henan region suffered greatly from the ravages of war. Later, Hou Jing attacked the Liang Dynasty, and Emperor Wenxiang dispatched Xintai Xinshu to attack Huainan, occupying a portion of the land. For these newly acquired provinces and counties, the court adopted a lenient governance style and a policy of light taxation.

After Emperor Wenxuan became emperor, he implemented many reforms. The personnel in the palace departments were significantly reduced, with each person expected to do the work of a hundred. Only those who were utterly fearless in battle could remain, so these people were called the "Hundred Protecting Xianbei." He also selected particularly brave Han people, called "warriors," to guard the border fortresses. He established a nine-tier household registration system, where wealthy individuals paid money and those without money contributed labor.

At that time, the north was constructing the Great Wall, while the south was engaged in battles over Jinling. Subsequent generals leading southern campaigns faced defeat after defeat, with casualties of soldiers and horses reaching several hundred thousand. In addition to the construction of palaces, a large amount of manpower and resources were used, and the emperor frequently punished people, creating opportunities for officials to engage in corrupt practices, while the powerful consolidated land and household registrations grew increasingly inaccurate as many people concealed their status. Previously, it was mandated that unmarried men pay half the tax, but in Yangdi County, tens of thousands of men were recorded as unmarried in the household register. When the government accused them of this, the emperor dismissed it as a mere triviality, so these deceitful practices became increasingly rampant, with household registrations and taxes, six or seven out of ten were misreported.

At that time, the country's expenses were increasing, and rewards were handed out indiscriminately, while the national treasury was running low on funds. Therefore, Emperor Wenxuan reduced the salaries of the officials, canceled the fixed rations for soldiers, and restructured the administrative and military organizations at the provincial, county, and town levels. He also stipulated that the governors and local officials who held multiple positions were no longer eligible for additional subsidies in order to save the country's expenses. In the eighth year of Tianbao, the government planned to relocate the landless people from Jizhou, Dingzhou, and Yingzhou to Kuangxiang in Youzhou, promising them a better life. However, the people were alarmed, especially with poor harvests in the preceding years causing food prices to soar.

During the reign of Emperor Fei, the Minister of the Left, Su Zhenzhi, proposed to cultivate the fields in Shibie and other areas, which could produce tens of thousands of bushels of grain each year. From then on, the Huainan army no longer had to be concerned about food supplies. During the reign of Emperor Xiaozhao, the Governor of Pingzhou, Ji Ye, suggested dredging the old water channels in the Youzhou and Dukang areas, setting up farmlands on both sides of the Great Wall, which could yield hundreds of thousands of stones of rice annually, securing the food supply in the northern border areas. Farmlands were also established along the Yellow River in Huaiyi and other areas to supply food to Henan, alleviating the difficulties of transporting food over long distances.

In the third year of Heqing, the government ordered that ten households create a neighborhood, fifty households form a village, and one hundred households form a clan. Men aged between eighteen and sixty-five were classified as adults, sixteen and seventeen-year-olds were classified as middle-aged, those above sixty-six were considered elderly, and those under fifteen were considered children. At eighteen, individuals became eligible to receive land, pay taxes, join the army at twenty, be exempt from labor duties at sixty, return the land at sixty-six, and be exempt from taxes.

Legend has it that within thirty li around the capital, it is all national farmland. So, who gets this farmland? It is for the officials working in the capital, from top officials to military officers; all receive land, but the amount varies. In the areas surrounding the capital, high-ranking officials and military officers also receive land, but the amount varies. If ordinary folks want to cultivate their own land, it is called permanent land, which they can own forever.

Slaves can also receive land, but there are restrictions on the amount. Princes can receive up to three hundred mu, while heirs to the throne can receive up to two hundred mu. Other princes and royal family members receive even less land, depending on their rank as well. In general, the higher the official rank, the more land they receive, and the lower the rank, the less land they receive, with at least sixty mu. Slaves who do not receive land do not have to pay taxes. For those living one hundred li outside the capital, or in prefectural cities, a man can receive eighty mu of land, while a woman can receive forty mu. Slaves receive land in proportion to what capital officials get. Additionally, each ox can receive sixty mu of land, but a maximum of four oxen can be allocated. Each person can also receive twenty mu of permanent land for planting mulberry trees, planting fifty mulberry trees per mu, along with three elm trees and five jujube trees, which aren't counted in the land allocation. Except for these trees, all other land must be included in the land distribution. If the land is not suitable for growing mulberry trees, then hemp can be planted, using the same method as for mulberry trees.

Each person is required to contribute one quilt, one piece of silk, and eight taels of cotton each year. As for the cotton, ten catties can be exchanged for one catty of silk. They must also pay two stones of land rent and five dou of tribute. The items that slaves must contribute are half of what their masters contribute. As for the working cattle, they must contribute two chi of cloth, one dou of land rent, and five dou of tribute. The land rent must be paid to the central government, and the tribute must be paid to the state and county to prepare for unforeseen needs and respond to floods and droughts. The amount of land rent is determined by wealth and categorized into upper, middle, and lower classes. Those who contribute more will be selected from the upper class; those who contribute middle amounts will be selected from the middle class; those who contribute less will be selected from the lower class. Those from the upper class will be sent to a distant place, those from the middle class will be sent to a slightly closer place, and those from the lower class will be sent to the state warehouse. An inspection is conducted every three years.

Within five hundred li, taxes paid to the central government are in millet; beyond five hundred li, they are in rice; those paid to the state and county are all in millet. If one wishes to pay in cash, they can exchange silk for money. Each state and county must establish a warehouse for the wealthy. Initially, enough food for one year must be prepared based on the population of the state and county. When food prices are low, the tribute of that year will be used to replenish the wealthy warehouse; when food is expensive, it will be sold at a low price; when food is cheap again, the money from selling the food will be used to buy and store food.

Every spring, everyone follows their hometown customs, rising early and staying up late to learn agricultural and sericulture techniques. From spring to autumn, men over fifteen years old go to cultivate the fields. During the sericulture season, women over fifteen are busy raising silkworms. In late autumn (November), the governor will assess the effectiveness of education in each region and rank them accordingly. If someone lacks cattle or if their cattle are too weak to cultivate enough land, they must help one another to ensure that everyone can plant seeds, so that there is no waste of land and no idle people.

In border areas, the garrison will establish farmland wherever land can be cultivated for food, led by the sons of the governors. Each son of a governor is responsible for fifty hectares of land, and at the end of the year, their harvest will be assessed to determine their merits and demerits.

At that time, there were frequent floods, many states and counties were flooded, and food prices soared. The court sent people to open the granaries and sell grain at high prices, but the common people hardly benefited, and the famine became even more severe. In addition, with the spread of epidemics, around seventy percent of the population perished. During the Tian Tong period, the Eastern Palace was demolished, and palaces such as Xiu Wen, Yan Wu, Long Ji, and Dai Mao Tower were built, and the construction of Yu Yuan Garden was undertaken. Many houses were built around the pond in the garden, three artificial mountains were erected in the middle of the pond, a high platform was built to imitate the sea, and large-scale construction of Buddhist temples was carried out, consuming vast amounts of labor and resources.

Because there was not enough money, the salaries of officials in the court were slashed, the food subsidies of various departments were stopped, and the routine rewards for soldiers in nine states were suspended to raise money. After the Wu Ping period, the nobles gained power one after another, rewards continued, and with droughts and locust plagues, the national treasury became even emptier, so money was collected from the six levels of wealthy individuals in the country according to their rank. Yan Zhi Tui, the Attendant of the Yellow Gate, proposed to collect taxes on customs markets and shops, and Deng Chang Yong, the governor, also agreed, which pleased the emperor greatly. Therefore, the collected taxes were used to fund the court's extravagance, neglecting state affairs. It wasn't long before the country fell.

Wow, when Zhou Tai Zu was the prime minister, he truly implemented sweeping reforms! He designed six departments, each overseeing various functions.

First is the Zai Shi, responsible for land measurement, household registration, livestock and vehicle statistics, tax collection and adjustment, as well as territorial planning and management; in short, they managed land and resources. They also stipulated the size of residential land, with larger plots for more people and smaller plots for fewer people; those with houses also had more land, while those without houses had less.

Next is the Si Jun, in charge of land distribution and population policies. Specifically, households with more than ten people were granted five mu of residential land; households with nine people were granted four mu; and households with less than five people were granted three mu. Those with houses were granted 140 mu of land, while those with only adult males were granted 100 mu of land.

Next is the Tax Department, responsible for collecting taxes. Men aged 18 to 64 must pay taxes. Those who own houses must pay one bolt of silk, eight taels of cotton, and five shi of grain each year; those without houses pay half the amount. If the land is not mulberry fields, then cloth and hemp must be paid instead, with the same amounts applied. In a good year, taxes are collected as required; in a bad year, they are halved or exempted. In times of disaster, taxes are exempted.

The Labor Department is responsible for forced labor. Men aged 18 to 59 must perform labor service. In a good year, they serve for 30 days; in a bad year, it is halved or reduced to 10 days. Each family can only provide one man for labor. People over 80 can have their sons exempted from labor; people over 100 exempt their entire family; disabled individuals or those without support can also be exempted. In times of disaster, corvée labor is also exempted.

The Salt Department is in charge of the production and sale of salt. They manage four types of salt: sea salt, pond salt, rock salt, and army salt, controlling the mining and sale of rock salt, and collecting taxes.

Finally, the Granary Department is responsible for managing grain, storing grain according to the country's needs. Excess grain in good years is used to help during disasters; when there isn’t enough, they store less, and surplus grain can be lent to the people, borrowed in spring and returned in autumn.

In the first year of Emperor Min's reign, the market tax was abolished. However, when Emperor Xuan ascended to the throne, market taxes were reintroduced. In the first year of Emperor Wudi's Baoding reign, the Eight-Ding soldiers were increased to Twelve-Ding soldiers, serving one month per year. In the second year of Jiande, the soldiers were changed to attendants, with the people serving as attendants, who were exempted from their county status. From that point on, half of the population in the Xia Dynasty were soldiers. During Emperor Xuan's reign, laborers were drafted from various regions in Shandong, extending the original one-month corvée labor requirement to 45 days for the construction of the Luoyang Palace, and six prefectures from Xiangzhou were moved to Luoyang, known as the Eastern Capital Six Prefectures.

In January of the year 546 AD, the Emperor (Emperor Wu) first dug canals in Puzhou, and then excavated the Longshou Canal in Tongzhou, to expand irrigation and make farming easier. After Emperor Gaozu took the throne, he called off military campaigns in Dongjing and abolished head taxes. During that time, Wei Jiong, Wang Qian, Sima Xiaonan, and others rebelled one after another, and the court had to mobilize troops to put them down, which cost a fortune, with rewards amounting to tens of thousands of coins.

After Emperor Gaozu officially became emperor, he moved the capital and brought in laborers from Shandong, launching large-scale construction to build palaces. The new system was based on the Zhou Dynasty's methods, dividing laborers into twelve shifts to serve in rotation, and craftsmen into six shifts. A series of new laws were then promulgated: five households formed a "bao", electing a leader for it; five baos formed a "lu", and four lus formed a "zu", with each unit having a leader in charge of management. Outside the capital, "lizheng" were established, with duties similar to those of lu leaders, while "dangzhang" were equivalent to zu leaders, mutually supervising and inspecting each other.

The population was categorized as follows: children under three were considered "huangding", those under ten were "xiaoding", those under seventeen were "zhongding", and those over eighteen were "dingnan", required to perform labor. Those over sixty were considered elderly and exempt from labor service. From imperial relatives to local governors, everyone received "yongye fields" of different sizes, with some getting as much as a hundred hectares and others as little as forty mu. The "yongye fields" of dingnan and zhongnan were distributed according to the old system of Northern Qi, and they had to plant mulberry, elm, and jujube trees. Generally, three people shared one mu of land, while slaves got one mu for every five of them.

Each man had to pay three shi of grain as rent and also had to deliver silk from mulberry trees and cloth from hemp fields. Silk was assessed by the piece, with an additional three liang of cotton required; cloth was assessed by the bolt, with an additional three jin of hemp. Bachelors and servants were taxed at half the rate. Those who had not yet received land allocations were exempt from taxes. Officials of certain ranks, filial sons, dutiful grandsons, righteous husbands, and chaste wives were exempt from labor. Officials in the capital were allocated both permanent fields and official fields. First-rank officials were allocated five hectares, with each lower rank losing fifty mu, down to three hectares for fifth-rank officials, two hectares and fifty mu for sixth-rank officials, and so on until ninth-rank officials were allocated one hectare. Officials from other regions also had official fields, as well as public fields used to cover official expenses.

In January of the year 583 AD, the emperor moved into the new palace. Firstly, he ordered the military to conscript one strong man from every 21 people. The corvee was reduced, with the service time cut from twelve shifts (the previous system) to 20 days. The silk each household had to submit was reduced from one piece to two zhang. Previously, continuing the poor practices from the Zhou Dynasty, the government ran wine workshops for profit, and salt ponds and wells were prohibited from use by the common people. At this point, the emperor ordered the shutdown of wine workshops and opened the salt ponds and wells to the common people, which delighted the common people.

At that time, the Turks invaded the border, and the Tuyuhun also posed a threat, with ongoing warfare and exhausting logistics. The emperor ordered the commander of Shuozhou, Zhao Zhongqing, to actively promote garrison farming north of the Great Wall to strengthen the border defenses. In the Hexi region, the people were encouraged to build fortifications, cultivate land, and stockpile food. A constant supply depot, known as the Changping Bureau, was established in the capital. At that time, the Shandong region still retained customs from the Northern Qi period, with many people being clever and attempting to evade corvee labor through various means, resulting in roughly sixteen or seventeen percent of people being idle and evasive. Exhausted individuals from various regions feigned old age or youth, trying to avoid taxes.

Emperor Gaozu issued orders for all states and counties to conduct large-scale household census checks. Those with false household registrations faced light exile or long-distance banishment, and channels for mutual reporting and whistleblowing were established. Those who had already made great contributions were also required to register their households in detail, with each person having their own household registration to prevent people from hiding their numbers. As a result, the household registration recorded an increase of 443,000 able-bodied men, and the number of new households rose by 1,641,500. Emperor Gaozu also found that although there were fixed standards for taxation, the amount collected each year always exceeded the regulations, with local officials acting without oversight, resulting in chaotic records and inaccuracies, making it hard to verify. Therefore, he established a unified tax registration form and requested its promotion nationwide. On the fifth day of the first lunar month each year, the county magistrate would conduct household inspections alongside the registration staff, forming small groups with several villages to verify the household registration according to the standards on the form. The Emperor adopted his suggestion, and from that point on, deceivers had nowhere to escape.

The common people lived peaceful lives, although occasional floods and droughts occurred, the population grew steadily each year. Tribute from various states was continuously transported to the capital from Tongguan in Henan and Puban in Hebei every year, with a steady stream of carts and horses on the roads day and night for several months. The Emperor lived a simple life, and the palace concubines wore laundered old clothes. The Emperor's carriages and utensils were replaced only when necessary and repaired if damaged, never remade. Apart from official banquets, the Emperor dined on just one kind of meat daily. Officials once presented dried ginger in cloth bags, which the Emperor deemed wasteful and criticized them severely. Later, when spices were presented in felt bags, the Emperor directly punished the officials who presented them, as a cautionary lesson for others. Therefore, the court was diligent in its responsibilities, the national treasury was well-stocked, and officials' salaries and rewards, along with those for meritorious individuals, were quite generous.

Nine years after, Chen Ping triumphed, and the emperor personally came to the Zhuque Gate to welcome the army and host a celebration and award ceremony. From outside the city gate to the South Gate, the road was lined with heaps of cloth, which were distributed to the soldiers in order. This time, over three million pieces of cloth were distributed as rewards. Because the Jianghuai region had just been pacified, the emperor exempted the region from taxes for a decade. Other states and counties were also exempted from rent that year. In May of the tenth year, because the world was peaceful, the emperor further reduced corvee and taxes. Citizens over the age of fifty were exempt from corvee and military service. In the eleventh year, a rebellion occurred in Jiangnan, which was quelled by Duke Yang Su of Yue. After returning in triumph, the emperor rewarded him with many things. Other soldiers who went on expeditions also received generous rewards. In the twelfth year, officials reported that the national treasury was full. The emperor said, "I have already reduced taxes for the people and given out rewards on a large scale, how can this be?" The officials replied, "The money for rewards has always been spent, and the income of the national treasury has always been high. Rough estimates indicate that the annual cloth rewards total in the millions, without any decrease." So the emperor opened the Left Treasury to house these items. The emperor also decreed, "When the country is prosperous, we must focus on education to understand integrity and shame. Rather than hoarding wealth in the treasury, it is better to benefit the people. This year, the land rent in Hebei and Hedong is reduced by one-third, military service is halved, and all contributions are exempted."

At that time, the population grew each year, leading to overcrowding and insufficient resources near the capital and in the Sanhe region. Many suggested relocating to less populated regions. That winter, the emperor instructed state examiners to discuss this issue. He also instructed officials to inquire about this matter from outstanding scholars who came from all directions, but no viable solutions emerged. The emperor then sent envoys to assess and equitably distribute land nationwide. In areas with poor land, each household could receive up to twenty mu of land, with even less allocated to the elderly, weak, women, and children.

Thirteen years ago, the emperor ordered Yang Su to go to the north of Qizhou to build the Renshou Palace. Yang Su, this fellow, flattened the mountains and filled in the valleys, building many palaces and towers, one after another, creating a particularly grand spectacle. The construction process was brutally harsh, with many laborers worked to death, some half-alive, who were simply pushed into pits and buried under dirt and stones. The death toll was at least in the tens of thousands! After the palace was built, the emperor moved in with great enthusiasm. It was sweltering heat, with corpses lining the roads, so Yang Su decided to burn it all down. The emperor had some inkling of this and was quite displeased. But when he entered the new palace and took a tour, he was overjoyed and convinced of Yang Su's loyalty. Later, as the year drew to a close one evening, the emperor climbed the Renshou Hall and looked into the distance, seeing flickering lights outside the palace and the sound of wailing. He sent his men to check it out, and they reported it was ghost lights. The emperor said, "These are the souls of the laborers who perished while building the palace. With the year coming to an end, they must be longing to go home, right?" So he had them sprinkle wine and chant incantations to send the lost souls off, and from that point on, all was well.

In the third year of the Kaihuang era, the court found that the granaries in the capital were still bare, so they rushed to prepare for floods and droughts. They issued an order to recruit laborers for grain transport in thirteen prefectures abundant in water, including Puzhou, Shanzhou, Guozhou, Xiongzhou, Yizhou, Luozhou, Zhengzhou, Huaizhou, Shaozhou, Weizhou, Bianzhou, Xuzhou, and Ruzhou. They built granaries in Weizhou, Luozhou, Shanzhou, and Huazhou, and these storehouses were interconnected to facilitate the easy transport of grain. Grain was shipped from Guandong, Fenzhou, and Jinzhou to supply the capital. Wei Zan, the Deputy Minister of the Granary Department, recruited labor in Puzhou and Shanzhou to transport forty stones of rice from Luoyang to Changping Warehouse, who would be exempt from military service. In the fourth year, the emperor ordered: "The place where I live, the capital, draws people and goods from all directions. The city gates are tightly secured, making transportation a challenge. The Yellow River rushes eastward, and while many rivers flow into it, there are dangers downstream of Sanmenxia. However, starting from Xiaopingdi, traveling by land to Shaanxi, then by river into the Wei River plain, we can manage the waterways of the Fen and Jin Rivers, making it easier to transport goods by boat and cart. But the Wei River's water level fluctuates, with shallow spots and numerous sandbars that frequently obstruct navigation. Though the distance is only a few hundred miles, seasonal changes greatly affect travel, making boat travel inconvenient and exhausting for those on board."

As emperor, I intend to promote the common good and eliminate corruption. Seeing these issues affecting both the public and private sectors, I am genuinely concerned. Therefore, I have decided to start from Tongguan and head east, diverting water from the Wei River, utilizing manpower to dig a canal for transportation. Based on the current circumstances, organizing the project will be straightforward. I have instructed the craftsmen to survey the route, assess the terrain, and devise long-term strategies. If the excavation is successful, it will benefit generations to come and be sustainable. This way, both officials and the common people can utilize large ships for continuous transport, saving immense resources in just ten days. I understand that it’s a scorching summer and everyone is working hard, but without enduring temporary hardships, how can we attain lasting comfort? I want to share my vision with all of you.

Thus, I have ordered Yu Wenkai to lead the craftsmen in digging a canal to divert water from the Wei River on the eastern side of Daxing City to Tongguan, covering over 300 miles, which I have named Guangtong Canal. From this point forward, transporting goods will be much more convenient, benefiting those within the pass. When different regions face floods, droughts, or famines, they can readily open their granaries to assist those in need.

In May, Minister of Works Changsun Ping presented a memorial saying: "In ancient times, after three years of farming, there would be enough surplus food for one year; after nine years of farming, there would be reserves for three years. Even in the event of floods or droughts, the people would not suffer from hunger or cold, all because of proper guidance and early preparation of reserves. Last year, there was a severe drought in the Guanzhong region, and Your Majesty showed great compassion for the people, even more than for your own children. You transported grain from Shandong, established granaries, opened them, and provided widespread relief. Even those who had previously struggled to eat enough now had sufficient food and clothing. Your benevolence is unprecedented. Even wealthy families were eager to contribute their wealth to help each other. This is all because your benevolence inspired everyone, leading to this scene. However, governing a country requires established guidelines." He then ordered the people and soldiers of each state to establish associations and jointly build granaries. When the harvest came, they would contribute grain based on their individual harvests, storing it in the granaries. The association managers were responsible for registering and recording, collecting the stored grain each year to prevent damage. If there was a poor harvest in any year and famine in the associations, the grain would be used for relief. From then on, each state stored a large amount of grain.

Later, the Guanzhong region suffered from years of continuous drought, while Qingzhou, Yanzhou, Bianzhou, Xuzhou, Caozhou, Bozhou, Chenzhou, Renzhou, Qiaozhou, Yuzhou, Zhengzhou, Luozhou, Yizhou, Yingzhou, and Pizhou experienced flooding, causing the people to suffer from hunger. Gaozu ordered Su Wei and others to open the granaries to aid the victims. He also instructed the Minister of Agriculture, Wang Bing, to allocate over three million stones of grain (a unit of measurement) from Guangtong Granary to aid the Guanzhong region, and to sell the old grain left by the Zhou Dynasty in the ancient city to the people at a low price. He also purchased over six thousand cattle and donkeys to distribute to the poorest people, allowing them to seek a living in the eastern areas. The states and counties affected by floods and droughts were granted tax exemptions for that year.

Fourteen years prior, there was a severe drought in the Guanzhong region, and the common folk were suffering from starvation. The emperor traveled to Luoyang and commanded the populace to gather there for food. Court officials permitted the public distribution of relief grain, treating all individuals equally, irrespective of their rank. In the subsequent year, the emperor went on a tour to the east and paid homage to Mount Tai. At that time, there was ample grain stored in various public granaries, but the common folk squandered their resources, depleting the grain supply.

In the second month of the fifteenth year, the emperor proclaimed a decree stating: "The establishment of public granaries was originally meant to deal with floods and droughts, but the people did not plan for the long term and spent money carelessly. What shall we do if another disaster strikes in the future? The circumstances in several northern provinces differ from those in other regions. The assorted grains in the public granaries of Yunzhou, Xiazhou, Changzhou, Lingzhou, Yanzhou, Lanzhou, Fengzhou, Shanzhou, Liangzhou, Ganzhou, Guazhou, and other provinces shall be overseen by their respective provinces. In the event of drought and grain shortages in any year, assorted grains and stored grain shall be distributed first." In the first month of the sixteenth year, the emperor ordered the establishment of community granaries in Qinzhou, Diezhou, Chengzhou, Kangzhou, Wuzhou, Wenzhou, Fangzhou, Dangzhou, Xuzhou, Taozhou, Minzhou, Weizhou, Jizhou, Hezhou, Kuozhou, Binzhou, Longzhou, Jingzhou, Ningzhou, Yuanzhou, Fuzhou, Danzhou, Yanzhou, Suizhou, Yinzhou, and Fuzhou. In the second month, the emperor ordered that the tax standards for community granaries shall be categorized into three tiers: upper, middle, and lower. Upper households shall contribute no more than one stone of grain, middle households no more than seven dou, and lower households no more than four dou.

In the ensuing years, Shandong endured several consecutive years of heavy rainfall, resulting in floods across provinces including Qizhou, Songzhou, Chenzhou, Bozhou, Caozhou, Daizhou, Qiaozhou, and Yingzhou, all the way to the seaside. Flooding was widespread. In the eighteenth year, the emperor dispatched officials accompanied by water management experts to assess river sources and evaluate the terrain, enlisting local residents to clear the rivers. For families in distress, grain was distributed from the granaries for relief, amounting to over five hundred stones of grain. Taxes were likewise waived for the affected regions. From that point onward, there were several consecutive years of bountiful harvests.

In the eighth year of the Kaihuang era, in the month of May, Gao Jiong reported that some counties did not pay taxes, and some counties had very few households under their administration, with officials' salaries and corvée always drawn from nearby counties. Magistrates are local officials, and corvée should be collected from the areas they oversaw. He suggested that taxes should be levied according to household registration. The emperor accepted his proposal. Prior to this, officials in the capital and in various counties received public funds to engage in commercial activities, making profits to cover official expenses. In the fourteenth year, in the month of June, the Minister of Works, Duke of Anping, Su Xiaoci, and others believed that officials across the country were following old practices, using public funds for commercial activities, focusing solely on profit, disturbing the populace, and undermining social ethics, which was unacceptable. They proposed converting public funds into land, requiring officials to farm and prohibiting commercial activities for profit. In the seventeenth year, in the month of November, the emperor issued a decree allowing officials in the capital and in various regions to conduct commercial activities both in the market and in other locations. However, they were forbidden from undertaking large-scale commercial activities aimed at excessive profits.

After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, the population kept increasing and the national treasury was overflowing. He eliminated taxes imposed on women and slaves. Men were regarded as adults at twenty-two. He began construction of the eastern capital Luoyang, appointing Yang Su as the chief overseer, demanding two million workers each month. He also relocated the inhabitants of Luozhou and tens of thousands of wealthy merchants from all over the country to live in Luoyang. He constructed new warehouses, known as Xingluo and Huiluo. He also constructed Xianren Palace in Zaojian, with sprawling palace gardens that extended from Xin'an in the north to Feishan in the south, and from Mianchi in the west, covering an area of hundreds of miles. He commanded contributions of various flowers, plants, trees, exotic fruits, rare birds, and animals from across the country for the palace gardens. He also excavated canals to channel water from the Luo River and Gu River into the palace gardens from the west, then back into the Luo River to the east. He also diverted water from the Yellow River to the Huaihai region, which he named the Imperial River. Imperial roads were built on both sides of the Imperial River, planted with willow trees. He sent the Yellow Gate Chamberlain Wang Hong and the Chief of the Imperial Clan Yu Shicheng to the southern regions to cut down large trees and transport them to the eastern capital. Every province and county along the way was responsible for transportation, with an unbroken procession of carts transporting the bodies of those who perished from overwork, extending thousands of miles from Chenggao in the east to Heyang in the north.

At that time, Emperor Yang of Sui was preparing to attack Liaodong, increasing his troops and seizing young men from all over. As a result, there were even fewer taxpayers. He also built many dragon boats, phoenix chariots, yellow dragon ships, tower ships, and bamboo rafts. He recruited many water workers, called "palace footmen," dressed them in brocade robes and silk trousers, had them use green silk ropes to pull the boats, and then take dragon boats to Jiangdu for recreation. Officials of fifth rank and above rode tower ships, while officials of ninth rank and above rode yellow bamboo rafts, with the boats linked together for over 200 miles. The provinces and counties they passed through were responsible for supplying food and drink, promoting those who provided generously and executing those who fell short. He also launched extensive construction projects, building carriages, sedan chairs, and various decorations such as flags and feathers. He ordered contributions from all over the country of bones, horns, teeth, leather, and feathers, anything suitable for decoration or clothing. The conscription of the people was very urgent, with orders that had to be completed by the next day, forcing the people to hunt everywhere, leading to a depletion of fish and game, with nets spread across both land and water, and almost all birds and beasts captured. Still not enough, they had to buy from wealthy families, driving prices through the roof. That year, the tail of a Reeves's pheasant sold for ten pieces of silk, and egret feathers were priced at half that of the Reeves's pheasant.

He sent the land reclamation official Chang Jun to Chitu Kingdom to bring people from the Rakshasa Kingdom. He also sent the court official Zhang Zhenzhou to launch an attack on Liuqiu, capturing tens of thousands. Soldiers deep in enemy territory fell ill from miasma and plague, with eight or nine out of every ten dying from hunger or disease.

Because the Western Regions had many treasures, the emperor dispatched Pei Ju to Zhangye to oversee the Hu merchants' trading activities. He lured them with incentives, convincing them to come and pay tribute. From then on, the various tribes of the Western Regions came and went incessantly, overwhelming the provinces and counties they traversed, draining vast sums of money on mere receptions and farewells.

In the second year, the emperor went to the north to hunt and inspect. He mobilized over a million troops to repair the Great Wall in the north, stretching from Yulin in the west to Zhe in the east, spanning over a thousand miles, resulting in a significant number of deaths. Four years later, he mobilized over a million people from Hebei to dig a canal to divert the Qin River, connecting the south to the Yellow River and the north to Zhuo County. From then on, there was a shortage of able-bodied men, leading to the conscription of women. Five years later, the emperor went to the Hexi Corridor for an inspection. The various tribes in the Western Regions welcomed the emperor, wearing ornaments made of gold, silver, and jade, draped in silk and fur blankets, burning incense and playing music. The emperor ordered the people of Wuwei and Zhangye to dress up and come out to pay their respects. Those with poor clothes and horses were urged by officials to quickly prepare to honor the emperor. That year, the emperor personally led the troops to conquer the Tuyuhun, achieving victory at Chishui. Murong Foyun abandoned his family and fled to Qinghai. The soldiers stationed there did not move and suffered severe casualties from heavy rain and treacherous terrain, with 70 to 80 percent of the soldiers lost and 80 to 90 percent of the horses and donkeys dead. River Source County and Jishi Town were established there, and in the Western Regions, Xihai, Shanshan, Qiemai, and other counties were established. Criminals from across the country were dispatched there as guards, large-scale agriculture was initiated, and food was transported from various counties in the west to supply them. The long journey frequently resulted in bandit attacks, leading to continuous casualties. In the sixth year, the emperor intended to launch an attack on Goryeo, but reports indicated significant losses of horses and equipment in the army. The emperor ordered the wealthy in the country to purchase horses to replenish the army according to their wealth, with a firm deadline. He also ordered a check on soldiers and weapons, requiring everything to be new, with poor quality resulting in execution for those who failed to comply. As a result, the army's horse count reached 100,000.

In the winter of the seventh year of his reign, the emperor held a large-scale military assembly in Zhuojun (now Zhuozhou City, Hebei Province). He entrusted the military of the Jianghuai region to the General of the Valiant Guards to command and protect, and dispatched a naval force to cross the sea. The fleet stretched for hundreds of miles, transporting military provisions, with plans to rendezvous with the main army in Pyongyang. That year, Shandong and Henan regions suffered devastating floods, submerging over forty counties. Alongside the failure of the Liaodong Campaign, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands, an outbreak of plague followed, especially severe in Shandong. Everywhere was busy looting the people's wealth to supply the army, while the common people continued to suffer, and the emperor remained indifferent. Every time conscription and taxes were collected, local officials would first buy goods from the people at low prices, then announce the collection orders, and sell at high prices to others, causing prices to soar in a matter of days. They ruthlessly exploited the people, solely focused on meeting their quotas. The wealthy banded together to commit theft, while the poor had no choice but to sell themselves into slavery.

For nine years, the emperor ordered the wealthy in the Guanzhong region to provide donkeys from their family wealth to transport grain to Yiwu, Heyuan, Qiemo, and other places. Some wealthy individuals sent hundreds of donkeys at once, each costing over ten thousand. The emperor also conscripted laborers from various states, dividing them into four groups, stationed them in Liucheng in Liaoxi, and traveled back and forth, which was very arduous, leading to the ruin of many families. With thieves rampant and roads blocked, all the horses in the Longyou region were stolen, and Yang Xuange seized the opportunity to rebel. At that time, the emperor was in Liaodong. Upon hearing the news, he hurried back to Gaoyang County. After Yang Xuange was pacified, the emperor remarked to his ministers, "Yang Xuange's call to arms attracted as many people as a market, which further shows that the people do not want excessive conscription and demands. If we do not completely exterminate them, we will not be able to warn others in the future." Therefore, the emperor ordered Pei Yun to thoroughly investigate Yang Xuange's accomplices and ordered all counties to execute them in mass graves, resulting in countless deaths and widespread fear. Nine out of ten people in the country had turned to thievery, looting military horses and beginning to use long spears to attack and seize territories. The emperor again ordered all counties to establish arrest agencies to capture thieves. He continued to recruit troops for a campaign against Liaodong, but due to insufficient horses, the requirement of eight horses per load was reduced to six, and if that wasn't enough, half a donkey could be counted as a substitute. People fled in droves along the roads, and those who were caught faced execution, yet the fleeing continued unabated. The emperor was deeply displeased.

Goguryeo sent the traitor Husi Zheng to the emperor, requesting his pardon. The emperor issued a decree pardoning him. Husi Zheng was escorted to the capital, where he was torn apart by a cart outside Kaiyuan Gate and then shot. Later, the emperor was besieged by the Turkic army at Yanmen in Taiyuan. The Turkic army eventually dispersed, and the emperor hurried back to Luoyang, recruiting elite soldiers to supplement the army. At that time, the people had abandoned production and gathered in the fortresses, unable to sustain themselves. However, warehouses across the country were still full of food, and officials, fearing legal repercussions, were reluctant to assist the populace, so the people became even more impoverished. At first, people resorted to eating tree bark, and then even tree leaves. When the bark and leaves were all gone, they began to cook soil or grind grass roots for food. Later, people even began to kill each other.

In the twelfth year, the emperor arrived in Jiangdu, present-day Yangzhou in Jiangsu Province. At this time, Li Mi took control of the Luokou Warehouse and amassed an army of a million. Prince Yue Yang Dong and Duan Da guarded the eastern capital (now Luoyang, Henan Province). Food supplies in the eastern capital had run out, while silk was piled high, so people used silk to make ropes for drawing water and even for cooking. Prince Dai Yang You and Wei Xuan guarded the capital, and the people were starving, but they were unable to provide any assistance. The rebel army entered Chang'an, opened the Yongfeng Warehouse to provide relief to the people, and the people were able to breathe a sigh of relief.

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, whenever buying and selling slaves, livestock, land, and houses with sales contracts, a tax of one four-hundredth of ten thousand coins had to be paid for each transaction, with the seller paying three hundred coins and the buyer paying one hundred. If there was no sales contract, a tax of four one-thousandths of the item's value was levied, called "scattered evaluation." From the Song Dynasty, Qi Dynasty, Liang Dynasty to the Chen Dynasty, taxes were always collected in this way. As a result, everyone rushed into trade and sales, neglecting agriculture. So the government sought to implement the equalization law to regulate the situation, claiming it aimed to curb speculation and profiteering, but in fact, it was to collect more taxes and make more money.

Furthermore, there are ferry crossings at Shitoujin on the west side of the capital city and Fangshanjin on the east side, each with a ferry master, a tax official, and five officials responsible for patrolling the waterway to inspect prohibited goods and fugitives. When items like reeds, charcoal, fish, and firewood pass through the ferry, a tax of ten percent is collected. The east ferry has no prohibited goods, so the inspections at Fangshanjin are relatively lax. There are over a hundred large markets and a dozen small markets north of the Huai River. The large markets have government institutions and heavy taxes, causing significant burdens for the common people.

During the early years of the Liang Dynasty, only the capital city and the regions of Sanwu, Jingzhou, Yingzhou, Jiangzhou, Xiangzhou, Liangzhou, and Yizhou used copper currency for trade, while other states and counties traded with grain and cloth. In Jiaozhou and Guangzhou, trade was conducted entirely with gold and silver. Emperor Wu of Liang minted new copper coins with thick edges that bore the inscription "Five Zhu," matching their weight and literal meaning. He also minted another type of coin, removing the heavy part of the edge, referred to as "Nv Qian." These two types of coins circulated simultaneously. Sometimes, common people also used old coins for transactions, with a variety of names such as Baifu Zhu, Wuzhu, Nv Qian, Taiping Bai Qian, Dingping Bai Qian, Wuzhu Zhi Qian, Wuzhu Dui Wen, and others, each with different weights. The emperor issued decrees multiple times, stipulating the use of only the two newly minted coins and prohibiting the use of old coins. However, those looking to get rich still secretly used old coins in large quantities.

In the ordinary years, the court planned to completely abolish copper coins and replace them with iron coins. Because iron was cheap and easy to obtain, everyone privately minted iron coins. After the founding of Datong, iron coins became so abundant that prices skyrocketed. During transactions, people grew too lazy to count the coins and only considered their weight. Unscrupulous merchants seized this opportunity to make a profit. In the eastern regions of Lingnan, 80 coins were referred to as 100, known as "Eastern Money"; in the areas north of Jiangzhou and Yingzhou, 70 coins were referred to as 100, known as "Western Money"; in the capital region, 90 coins were referred to as 100, known as "Long Money." In the first year of Datong, the emperor issued a decree to unify the use of currency with sufficient value, but the common folk ignored it, and the actual value of coins continued to decline. By the end of the Liang Dynasty, it took 35 coins to equal 100.

When the Chen Dynasty was established, it was during a period of chaos after the fall of the Liang Dynasty, and copper coins were no longer in circulation. In the later years of the Liang Dynasty, two types of coins emerged, one called "Two Pillar Coins" and the other called "Goose Eye Coins," which people used interchangeably without distinction. The prices were the same, but the Two Pillar Coins were heavier, while the Goose Eye Coins were lighter. Many households melted down coins in secret, mixing them with tin and iron, and even used food and cloth for trade. It wasn't until the fifth year of Emperor Wen's Tianjia reign that the Five Zhu coins were reissued. When they were first issued, one Five Zhu coin was equivalent to ten Goose Eye coins. In the eleventh year of Emperor Xuan's Taijian era, another type of coin called "Da Huo Six Zhu" was minted, with one being equivalent to ten Five Zhu coins, and both circulated together. It was later changed to a one-to-one exchange, which proved inconvenient for everyone. As a result, someone spread rumors on purpose that the design of the Six Zhu coins was unfavorable to the court. Not long after, the emperor died, and the Six Zhu coins were abolished, and people continued to use the Five Zhu coins. This continued until the fall of the Chen Dynasty. It's said that in the Lingnan region, people primarily traded with salt, rice, and cloth, hardly using coins at all.

During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Qi Dynasty, when he first came to power, the Yong'an wuzhu coins from the Northern Wei dynasty were still in use. After moving the capital to Ye City, the phenomenon of private coinage among the people increased, resulting in a variety of names. For example, in Yongzhou there were green coins and red coins, in Liangzhou there were thick coins, thin coins, tight coins, and lucky coins, in Heyang there were rough coins, sharp coins, Tianzhu coins, and red coins, and so on. In northern Jizhou, coins were not in circulation at all, and transactions were conducted using silk instead. Emperor Wu then ordered the collection of copper and existing coins nationwide, and then to recast them according to the original style and distribute them throughout the country. Before long, the coins started becoming increasingly thinner, and counterfeit coins became more prevalent. After Emperor Wenxuan ascended the throne, the Yongan wuzhu coins were abolished, and the Changping wuzhu coins were recast with weight and inscriptions that matched. These coins were very valuable and made with great craftsmanship. During the Qianming and Huangjian periods, the issue of private coinage rose again. In Ye City, there were various coins in circulation, such as red ripe coins, green ripe coins, thin eyebrow coins, and red raw coins. In Henan, there were differences between green thin coins and lead-tin coins. The types of coins varied across Qingzhou, Qizhou, Xuzhou, Yanzhou, Liangzhou, and Yuzhou. After the Wuping period, the issue of private coinage became more serious, with some even resorting to using iron and copper to mint coins. Until the fall of the Qi Dynasty, this phenomenon could not be stopped.

It is said that in the early days of the Later Zhou, people were still using the coins of the Wei Dynasty. In the first year of Baoding of Emperor Wu, in July, the government began minting the new "buquan coin," with one buquan coin being equivalent to five old coins, circulating alongside the wuzhu coins. At that time, in Liangzhou and Yizhou, various old coins continued to be used for transactions. In the counties of Hexi, some even used gold and silver coins from the Western Regions, and the government overlooked this.

In the third year of Jiande in June, the government minted the "Five Elements Da Bu Qian" once more. One Five Elements Da Bu Qian was equal to ten old coins. The government raked in substantial profits, and the Five Elements Da Bu Qian circulated together with Bu Quan Qian. However, in July of the fourth year, the situation of coin counterfeiting in border areas became too serious. The government had to order the prohibition of the circulation of Five Elements Da Bu Qian at the four major national checkpoints. Bu Quan Qian could enter the checkpoints but was not allowed to leave. In the first month of the fifth year of Jiande, because Bu Quan Qian became increasingly worthless and no one used it, the government decided to abolish Bu Quan Qian. Those who privately minted coins were to be executed, and their accomplices were to be banished to remote areas to serve as registered inhabitants.

After the situation was stabilized, people in Shandong were still using the old coins from before the Qi dynasty. In November of the first year of Xuandi Da Xiang, the government minted the "Yong Tong Wan Guo Qian" again. One coin was equal to ten old coins, and it circulated together with Five Elements Da Bu Qian and Five Zhu Qian, with a total of three types of coins in simultaneous use.

After Gaozu became emperor, he found that the weight and quality of coins across the country varied, so he ordered the minting of new coins. The new coins had a smooth back, a well-defined edge, and the words "Five Zhu" inscribed on them. The weight also corresponded to the literal meaning, with one thousand coins weighing four jin and two liang. When the new coins were initially issued, some people secretly melted old coins to remint them. In the fourth month of the third year, the court ordered that one hundred new coins be distributed as samples at various checkpoints nationwide. Coins entering from outside the checkpoints had to be compared to the samples. If they matched, they would be allowed to pass; if not, they were considered worthless and confiscated for the national treasury. After the new coins were issued, the old coins like Five Elements Da Bu, Yong Tong Wan Guo, and Qi Chang Ping still continued to be used in various places. In the fourth year, the court again ordered the prohibition of using old coins, with county officials having half a year's salary withheld as punishment. However, the common people were used to the old coins and found it hard to stop using them. In the first month of the fifth year, the court once again strictly enforced the new coin policy. Since then, currency became unified, circulating throughout the nation, and the people found this much more convenient.

At that time, casting coins required adding tin and lead. Tin and lead were relatively cheap, and there were many people seeking profit, so the issue of private coinage was rampant. In that year, the court ordered the prohibition of mining tin and lead, and the people were also not allowed to mine privately. A decade later, the court permitted Prince Jin Guang to set up five coin minting furnaces in Yangzhou. Later, some unscrupulous individuals gradually wore down the edges of the coins, stole copper to privately cast coins, and even added tin to produce counterfeit coins. This led to widespread imitation, causing the coins to become increasingly flimsy. Therefore, the court ordered the prohibition of inferior quality coins. In the capital and markets of various provinces, notices were posted, displaying sample coins as standards. Coins that did not meet the standards were not allowed to circulate in the market. In the eighteenth year, the court allowed Prince Han Liang to establish five coin casting furnaces in Bingzhou. At that time, coins were in short supply in the Jiangnan region, so Prince Jin Guang also established a coin mint in Ezhou, where there was a copper mine. Thus, the court permitted the setup of ten coin minting furnaces. The court also allowed Prince Shu Xiu to establish five coin casting furnaces in Yizhou. At this time, there were more and more inferior quality coins, so the court ordered the relevant authorities to collect coins from markets nationwide. All coins not minted by the government were to be destroyed, and the copper was to be returned to the national treasury. Those trading in inferior coins in the capital were apprehended by the authorities, and some were even executed. It took several years for the issue of private coinage to diminish. After the Daye period, the court's control became lax and chaotic, permitting a surge of unscrupulous individuals to mint coins privately, making the coins thinner and thinner. Initially, a thousand coins weighed two catties, but gradually decreased to one catty. Some even cut iron scraps and used leather to glue paper, creating counterfeit coins. Goods were cheap, while items were expensive, ultimately contributing to the country's downfall.