Real Histories
In the country of Khotan, just over 200 miles north of the Tianshan Mountains, the king's surname is Wang, whose courtesy name is Beishibiliang. The capital city is approximately eight or nine miles in diameter. The country has five major cities, dozens of small cities, with only a few thousand soldiers. The common people practice Buddhism, and there are many monks and nuns. The king often eats vegetarian food and recites scriptures. Fifty miles south of the city is Zhamo Temple, reportedly built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu. The temple features footprints of the Buddha on its stones. Five hundred miles to the west is another temple called Bimo, believed to be where Laozi converted the barbarians into Buddhists. However, the local people are known for their lack of morals, theft, and promiscuity. The king wears a brocade hat and a golden crown, while his wife wears golden hairpins. The king's hair is not to be seen by others, as it is believed that seeing it will bring bad luck for the year. The region produces hemp, wheat, millet, rice, various fruits, and an abundance of jade in the mountains. To the east is Shanshan, 1,500 miles away; to the south is the land of women, 3,000 miles away; to the west is Zhujubo, 1,000 miles away; to the north is Kucha, 1,400 miles away; and to the northeast, Guazhou is 2,800 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they regularly sent envoys bearing tribute.
Tashkurgan is located more than 500 miles west of the Tianshan Mountains, formerly known as Qusou. The king's surname is Zhaowu, with the style name Alizhi. The capital city is four miles in circumference, with a few thousand soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from golden sheep, and his wife wears golden hairpins. This region produces cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east is Shule, 1,000 miles away; to the west is Sufengshana, 500 miles away; to the northwest is Shigu, 500 miles away; to the northeast is Tujueya, over 2,000 miles away; and to the east, Guazhou is 5,500 miles away. During the Dali era, they also sent envoys bearing some local products as tribute.
Tocharian Kingdom, five hundred miles west of Congling, shares its territory with the Yida Kingdom. The capital city spans an area of two miles, but they boast an army of one hundred thousand skilled soldiers, all trained in martial arts. They also follow Buddhism. A peculiar custom here involves several brothers sharing a wife, and the brother who spends the night hangs his clothes outside the door as a marker. The children born are considered the responsibility of the eldest brother. In the mountain caves, there are legendary horses, and every year people put mares in the caves, which then produce exceptional foals. "In the mountain caves, there are divine horses, and every year mares are pastured in the caves, and they will produce famous foals." To the south lies Cao Kingdom, one thousand seven hundred miles away, and to the east, it is five thousand eight hundred miles to Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Yida Kingdom, more than two hundred miles south of Wuhu River, is descendants of the Yuezhi people. They have five to six thousand soldiers, known for their fierce nature and military prowess. During a previous period of turmoil, the Turks sent people to control them and appointed a king named Jieqiang. Their capital city is about ten miles in circumference, with many temples and pagodas decorated with gold. They have the custom of brothers sharing wives, and if a woman has only one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases. The Yida Kingdom is one thousand five hundred miles from Cao Kingdom and six thousand five hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Mi Kingdom, west of the Namishui River, was formerly part of the Kangju territory. They have no king, and the city lord is named Zhaowu, a relative of the Kang king, with the courtesy name of Bizhuo. The capital city is only two miles in size, boasting only a few hundred soldiers. The Mi Kingdom is one hundred miles from Kang Kingdom, five hundred miles from Suduoshana Kingdom, two hundred miles from Shiguo, and six thousand four hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they regularly sent tributes in both directions.
Shi Guo, ten miles south of the Dumoshui, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. Their king's surname was Zhao Wu, with the courtesy name Ti Zhe, and he was a distant relative of the Kang king. The capital covered only two miles, with an army of over a thousand soldiers. Their customs were similar to those of the Kang kingdom. Shi Guo was 240 miles from Kang Guo, 500 miles from the Tuhuolu, 200 miles from Nasebo Guo, 200 miles from Mi Guo, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
Cao Guo, a few miles south of the Nami River, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. This country did not have its own ruler, and the Kang king allowed his son Wujian to manage it. The capital was three miles in size, with an army of over a thousand soldiers. Cao Guo had a very powerful deity, worshipped by nations from east of the Western Sea. This deity had a golden statue, over five feet wide and proportionately tall. Every day, offerings of five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were made, with offerings that even a thousand people could not finish. Cao Guo was 100 miles from Kang Guo, 150 miles from He Guo, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
He Guo, a few miles south of the Nami River, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. Their king's surname was Zhao Wu, a relative of the Kang king with the courtesy name Dun. The capital covered only two miles, with an army of a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne shaped like a golden sheep. He Guo was 150 miles from Cao Guo, 300 miles from Xiao'an Guo, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
Wu Na He Guo, with its capital built west of the Wu Xu River, used to be the territory of the Anxi kingdom. The king's surname was Zhao Wu, a descendant of the Kang kingdom with the courtesy name Foshi. The capital city had a circumference of two miles. There were only a few hundred elite soldiers. The king's throne was shaped like a golden sheep. Four hundred miles northeast led to An Guo, over two hundred miles northwest led to Mu Guo, and 7,500 miles east led to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty's Daye period, they sent envoys to offer local specialties.
The Kingdom of Mu, whose capital is located on the western bank of the Wu River, was once part of the territory of the Anxi Kingdom and borders the Kingdom of Wunaho. Their king is also surnamed Zhaowu, a descendant of the king of the Kang Kingdom, whose courtesy name is Alanmi. The capital spans three miles and is defended by two thousand elite soldiers. Five hundred miles to the northeast lies Anguo, more than two hundred miles to the east is the Kingdom of Wunaho, more than four thousand miles to the west is Persia, and seven thousand seven hundred miles to the east is Guazhou. During the era of the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to present tributes of local specialties.
Persia, situated west of the Dahe River, is home to Sulincheng, which was known in ancient times as Tiaozhi. Their king is called Kusahe. Its capital covers an area of approximately ten miles in diameter. The kingdom boasts over twenty thousand elite soldiers who engage in battle while riding elephants. This kingdom does not impose the death penalty. For those who commit crimes, punishments may include amputation of hands or feet, confiscation of property, shaving off beards, or wearing wooden boards around their necks for identification. All individuals over the age of three are required to pay a tax of four coins. It is customary for individuals to marry their own sisters. Upon death, the deceased are left on the mountain, and family members are required to observe a month-long mourning period. The king dons a golden flower crown and sits upon a throne crafted from golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, dresses in brocade robes, and accessorizes with jade ornaments.
This place produces good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, as well as large bird eggs, pearls, poli (a type of gem), shoupo (a type of gem), coral, glazed pottery, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gem), huluoji (a type of gem), luteng (a type of gem), huoqi (a type of gem), diamonds, gold, silver, a stone called jinyu stone, copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, woolen blankets, tan (a type of fabric), yuenobu (a type of fabric), sandalwood, cloth woven with gold thread, deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, benzoin, and agarwood, pepper, bibo (a type of spice), honey, half-honey (a type of sugar), thousand-year dates, aconite (a type of medicinal herb), helile (a type of fruit), wushizi (a type of fruit), green vitriol (a type of pigment), realgar (a type of pigment). The Turks were unable to defeat them and could only impose indirect control. The Persian Empire often sent envoys to pay tribute.
Several hundred miles west of the Persian Empire is the sea, over four thousand miles east to the Kingdom of Mu, four thousand five hundred miles northwest to Byzantium, and seventeen thousand miles east to Gua Prefecture. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sent Li Yu, the commander of the Cloud Cavalry, as an envoy to Persia, and later sent someone to accompany Li Yu to present some special products as tribute.
Cao Country, located north of the Congling Mountains, was called Jibin Country during the Han Dynasty. The king of this country was named Zhaowu, with the style name Shunda, and was a relative of the King of Kangju.
The capital city has a perimeter of four li. It boasts over ten thousand formidable soldiers. The laws of the country are very strict, where murderers and robbers face the death penalty. The locals enjoy participating in unusual ritual practices.
On Onion Ridge, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of the God of Heaven. The ceremonies are quite lavish, the temple is constructed of gold, silver, and copper, and the ground is laid with silver. Every day, thousands of people come to pay their respects. In front of the temple, there is a stone resembling a fish's spine, with a hole in the center wide enough for a horse to pass through. The king wears a crown shaped like a golden fish and sits on a throne crafted from gold. This region produces rice, millet, beans, and wheat, as well as many elephants, horses, and yaks, along with gold, silver, bintie, a type of high-quality steel, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, sandalwood, and other spices, as well as rock honey, half honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite. To the north lies Fan Yan City, seven hundred li away; to the east, Jueguo is six hundred li away; and to the northeast, Guazhou is six thousand six hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, Cao Guo sent envoys to present various local specialties.
Fu Guo, over two thousand li northwest of Shu County, is the region inhabited by the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a Jialiang Yi to the east of Fu Guo, who govern themselves and have customs similar to those of Fu Guo, although their languages differ slightly and are not standardized. They do not use surnames. The king of Fu Guo is called Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li long from southeast to northwest, without city walls, situated near river valleys and nestled against mountains. They like revenge, so they construct "stone nests" from piled stones to hide from enemies. These "stone nests" are over ten zhang tall, with some as low as five or six zhang, each layer being over one zhang high and separated by wood. The base measures three or four steps on each side, and the tops of the "stone nests" are only two or three steps wide, shaped like pagodas. The lower level has a small door, and it must be closed at night to prevent theft. There are over twenty thousand households in the country, all subject to the king's rule. The Jialiang Yi listen to their chieftains, and those who commit serious crimes face the death penalty, while minor offenses are punished by the loss of a cow. They are nimble and skilled swordsmen. They wear lacquered leather armor, have bows six chi long, and use bamboo for bowstrings. They marry women from their own clan, including the wives of deceased brothers or sons. They enjoy singing and dancing, accompanied by drums, reed instruments, and flutes. When someone dies, they do not wear mourning attire. The body is placed on a high bed, washed, dressed, covered with lacquered armor, and then draped with animal skins. Descendants do not cry; instead, they don armor and dance with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by a ghost, and I will avenge him!" Other relatives cry three times before stopping. Women must cover their faces while crying. The deceased's family slaughters a cow, and relatives bring pork and wine for a communal feast before the burial. A grand burial is held ten years later, inviting friends and relatives. Sometimes, dozens of horses are sacrificed. They erect ancestor shrines for worship. They wear round leather hats resembling bowls, with some covering their faces with veils. Most wear clothing made of fur and leather, along with boots crafted from whole cow hides. They adorn themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftains don gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The terrain is elevated, characterized by a cool climate with little rainfall. The land is suitable for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains yield gold and silver, and are home to many white pheasants. The river is home to a desirable fish, measuring four chi long, with very fine scales.
In the year 608 AD, the king sent eight men, led by Su Fu, to the court to pay tribute. The next year, he sent his student Yi Lin, accompanied by sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe, to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but the road was too steep and dangerous, so they requested that a mountain road be opened to facilitate their tribute. Emperor Yang of Sui found it too troublesome and refused their request.
The Jialiang Yi tribe had a river that was about sixty to seventy zhang wide; there was also a river in Fugu, more than a hundred zhang wide, both flowing south, and they used animal skins to make boats to cross the river. To the south of Fugu lay a tribe called the Boyuan Yi, which had similar customs. To the west of Fugu, there was a matriarchal society. To the northeast of Fugu, mountains stretched for thousands of miles, all the way to the Dangxiang area. In the mountains, numerous Qiang tribes resided: Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Dahua, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nao, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, and Qiandiao. These tribes lived deep in the mountains and forests, none of which had a prominent leader. Their customs were similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some were subject to the Tuyuhun, while others were affiliated with Fugu. During the Sui Dynasty, these tribes came to the court to pay tribute. The court appointed several officials along the southwestern border to oversee these distant tribes.
In historical records, it is said that from ancient times to the present, to open up the borders and engage in trade with distant lands, there must be an ambitious emperor and several ministers eager to accomplish great things. Zhang Qian blazed the trail to the Western Regions, while Ban Chao later took up arms and continued the campaign in the Western Regions. They either used treasures to buy or employed force to intimidate, risking their lives for fleeting glory. All of this is because the emperor is fond of expanding his territorial reputation, and the ministers are willing to sacrifice their lives for this achievement. So, whatever the emperor likes, the people below will definitely like it more.
Emperor Yang of Sui was notorious for extravagance and waste, even more so than the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju presented the "Record of the Western Regions," which delighted Emperor Yang. Consequently, the emperor personally traveled beyond the Yumen Pass to establish settlements like Yiwu and Qiemo. From Guanzhong to the desert regions, chaos reigned, and the people endured great suffering. Even if the northern nomads were not causing trouble, and victories were secured in the east, Emperor Yang of Sui would continue to build military camps at Luntai, construct cities at Wulei, and seek the pearls of the Great Qin, bringing back bird eggs from Tiao Zhi, which would have cost countless lives!
In ancient times, those wise emperors, whose realms spanned only about five thousand miles, were solely focused on stabilizing the Central Plains, paying little heed to those distant lands. Were they not prestigious or virtuous enough? No, they just didn't want the people of the Central Plains to suffer because of border issues, and they didn't want to delay important matters because of trivial matters. Thus, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops in the Wuling Mountains, and the Han Dynasty deployed forces at the three borders, leading to either widespread carnage or a drastic population decline. The Sui Dynasty overestimated its strength, only to suffer a significant defeat in Qinghai. All this stemmed from the emperor's misguided choices, which brought suffering to the common people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could consider the meaning of "living in peace and working happily," resolutely reject the requests to set up the Protectorate, return the thousand-mile horses, and refuse the tribute of the white wolves, then those minority groups in the west, even if they chose not to pay tribute, would not have had to endure the tragedy of Jiangdu!
The country of Shule is more than a hundred miles south of Bai Mountain and has existed since the Han Dynasty. The king, named Amijue, and both he and his subjects have six fingers. Children born without six fingers tend not to survive long. The capital city spans five li. There are twelve major cities, dozens of small cities, and a force of two thousand elite soldiers. The king wears a hat fashioned from gold lion motifs. The country produces rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, silk, and orpiment, which are presented as tribute to the Turks each year. To the south of Shule is the Yellow River, to the west lies the Han Kingdom, over a thousand li away, to the east lies Kucha, about fifteen hundred li away, to the south is Zhu Jubo, approximately eight to nine hundred li away, to the northeast lies the Turks' camp, over a thousand li distant, and to the southeast is Guazhou, about four thousand six hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, Shule also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Yutian is located more than two hundred li north of the Congling Mountains. The king's name is Wang Beishibiliang. The capital city stretches about eight to nine li. The country has five large cities, dozens of small cities, and several thousand elite soldiers. They follow Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns; the king often follows a vegetarian diet and recites scriptures. Fifty li south of the city, there is a Zanmo Temple, which is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu. The temple stones bear the footprints of the Buddha. Five hundred li west of Yutian, there is a Bimo Temple, which is said to be the place where Laozi converted the barbarians into Buddhists. The people of Yutian are known for their lack of propriety, with many thieves and bandits, and they are quite licentious. The king wears a brocade hat adorned with a golden rat, while the queen wears a gold flower. The king's hair is not to be seen by others, because local lore says that if anyone sees the king's hair, that year will surely bring poverty. Yutian boasts abundant resources such as hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and a variety of fruits, featuring numerous gardens and an abundance of beautiful jade stones in the mountains. Yutian is 1,500 li east of Shanshan, 3,000 li south of Nüguo, over 1,000 li west of Zhujubo, and 1,400 li north of Kucha. It is 2,800 li northeast of Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, Yutian frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of Khan is located more than five hundred li west of the Congling Mountains, formerly known as the Kingdom of Qusou. The king's name is Zhaowu Aliqi. The capital city is about four li long, with several thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from golden sheep, and the queen wears a gold flower. The country is abundant in cinnabar, gold, and iron. The Kingdom of Khan is over 1,000 li east of Shule, 500 li west of Sufengshana country, 500 li northwest of Shiguo, over 2,000 li northeast of the Tujue camp, and 5,500 li east of Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Khan also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
In the country of Tuhuoluo, the capital is located 500 miles west of Congling, where its people coexist with those of Yida. The capital city covers an area of about two square miles. There are around 100,000 well-trained soldiers. Their customs involve the practice of Buddhism. Additionally, brothers share a wife, taking turns to sleep with her. When entering the house, each person hangs their clothes outside the door as a marker. The children born are considered the responsibility of the eldest brother. Legend has it that divine horses dwell in the caves there, and every year, they can give birth to fine steeds by grazing mares in the caves. Traveling south from Tuhuoluo for 1,700 miles takes you to Cao, and heading east for 5,800 miles brings you to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they even sent envoys to offer tribute.
Yida country, its capital lies more than 200 miles south of Wuhu River, and they are descendants of the ancient Dayuezhi. There are about five to six thousand soldiers who are fierce and skilled in battle. Historically, during times of unrest, the Turks appointed a man named Tong Shezijiangqiang to oversee them. The capital city spans over ten square miles. There are many temples and pagodas, all richly adorned with gold. Brothers also share one wife. If a woman has one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if she has multiple husbands, the number of horns on her hat corresponds to the number of husbands. Going south from Yida for 1,500 miles leads to Cao, and going east for 6,500 miles leads to Guazhou. During the Deyuan era, they also sent envoys to offer some local specialties as tribute.
Miguo country, its capital lies west of the Namishi River, and it used to be the territory of the Kangju people. This country is without a king. The city lord, Zhaowu, is a distant relative of the king of Kang, known by the courtesy name Bizhuo. The capital city is approximately two square miles in size. There are only a few hundred soldiers capable of fighting. Going northwest for a hundred miles leads to Kang, going east for five hundred miles leads to Suduishana, going southwest for two hundred miles leads to Shiguo, and going east for 6,400 miles leads to Guazhou. During the Deyuan era, they frequently sent local specialties as tribute.
Shi Guo, its capital is located ten miles south of Du Mo Shui, and was previously the territory of the Kangju. Their king's surname is Zhaowu, with the courtesy name Ti Zhe, and he is also a distant relative of the Kangju king. The capital city covers an area of about two square miles. There are over a thousand soldiers capable of fighting. Its customs are similar to those of the Kangju. Traveling north for two hundred and forty miles will take you to Kangju, traveling south for five hundred miles will lead you to the Kingdom of Tuhuolu, traveling west for two hundred miles will take you to the Nasebo Kingdom, traveling northeast for two hundred miles will lead you to the Kingdom of Mi, and traveling east for six thousand five hundred miles will take you to Guazhou. During the Daye period, they too sent envoys to present tributes of local products.
Cao Guo, its capital is located a few miles south of Mi Shui, which was previously the territory of the Kangju. The country lacks its own ruler, so the King of Kangju sent his son Wu Jian to govern. The capital is relatively small, covering only about three square miles. There are also just over a thousand elite soldiers. There is a mysterious object in this country that many countries from the West Sea to the East revere. This mysterious object is a golden figure, made of gold, over five zhang wide and proportionally tall. Every day, five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep are sacrificed to it, and the leftovers are too much for a thousand people to finish. Heading a hundred miles southeast of Cao Guo will lead you to Kangju, a hundred and fifty miles west is He Guo, and six thousand six hundred miles east is Guazhou. During the Daye period of Emperor Yang of Sui, Cao Guo also sent envoys to present tributes.
He Guo, its capital is similarly located a few miles south of Mi Shui, which was previously the territory of the Kangju. The king's surname is Zhaowu, also a relative of the Kangju royal family, with the courtesy name Dun. The capital is only two square miles, with just a thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a throne made of gold and shaped like a sheep. Heading a hundred and fifty miles east of He Guo is Cao Guo, three hundred miles west is Xiao An Guo, and six thousand seven hundred and fifty miles east is Guazhou. During the Daye period, they too sent envoys to present tributes.
The country of Wunaho, whose capital is situated on the west bank of the Wuhu River, was formerly part of the Arsacid territory. The king's family name is Zhaowu and is also a member of the Kang royal family, whose courtesy name is Foshi. The capital covers an area of two square miles, with a military force of only a few hundred soldiers. The king sits upon a throne shaped like a golden ram. Anguo lies four hundred miles northeast of Wunaho, Muguo is located over two hundred miles to the northwest, and Guazhou is situated seven thousand five hundred miles to the east. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute.
Muguo, whose capital is on the west bank of the Wuhu River, which is also part of the former Arsacid territory, boasts a force of two thousand elite soldiers. Its capital spans an area of three square miles. Anguo is located five hundred miles northeast of Muguo, Wunaho is over two hundred miles to the east, Persia lies over four thousand miles to the west, and Guazhou is situated seven thousand seven hundred miles to the east. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute.
Speaking of Persia, it is located in the city of Sulim on the west side of the Dahe River, which is the ancient city of Tiaozhi. The king is named Kusahe, with a circumference of over ten miles for the capital. The army comprises over twenty thousand soldiers who engage in battle riding elephants. In this country, there is no death penalty, and those convicted of crimes may face amputation of hands and feet, property confiscation, be shaved, or have a wooden plaque hung around their neck for public humiliation. Individuals over the age of three are required to pay an annual tax of four coins. They also practice the custom of marrying their own sisters. When a person dies, their body is placed on a mountain, and family members are required to observe a month of mourning. The king dons a crown adorned with golden flowers, sits on a throne crafted in the shape of golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, is clad in a robe intricately embroidered with gold thread, and accessorizes with jade ornaments.
This country of Persia produces fine horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, large bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a gemstone), beast spirit (a gemstone), coral, glassy, agate, crystal, sapphire (a gemstone), holokite (a gemstone), lute (a gemstone), fire-qi (a gemstone), diamond, gold, silver, tin ore (a mineral), copper, brittle iron (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, felt blankets (a type of woolen blanket), tufted felt blankets, huna (a fabric), Yuen cloth (a fabric), sandalwood and silk woven with gold thread, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, along with various spices, including aloeswood, tulips, suhe incense, agarwood, and so on, as well as pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semihoney (a type of sugar), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helile (a medicinal herb), gallnut (a medicinal herb), green vitriol, realgar, and so on. The Turks were unable to defeat them, so they had to adopt a policy of indirect control towards them. The Persian country often sent envoys to pay tribute.
West of Persia lies the sea, to the east is the land of Mu, to the northwest is Fulin, known as the Byzantine Empire, and to the east is Guazhou. Emperor Yang of Sui sent Li Yu, captain of the Cloud Riders, to Persia, and later sent envoys with Li Yu to present various treasures as tribute.
Cao country, north of the Congling Mountains, was called the Jibin country during the Han Dynasty. The king of this land is Zhaowu, styled Shunda, and is a member of the royal family of Kangju.
The capital city stretches four li along its walls. There are over ten thousand formidable soldiers. The laws of the country are very strict, where murderers and robbers are sentenced to death. The locals are superstitious and partake in various chaotic religious practices.
On the top of Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of the Heavenly God. The temple is very luxurious, whose roof is made of gold, silver, and copper, and the floor is covered in silver. Every day, thousands of people come to pay their respects.
In front of the temple stands a fish spine bone, with a hollow center large enough for a horse to pass through. The king wears a golden crown shaped like a fish and sits on a throne crafted from golden horses.
This region produces rice, millet, beans, and wheat, as well as many elephants, horses, and a type of cattle known as Fengniu, along with gold, silver, bingtong, a type of high-quality steel, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, sandalwood, including rock honey and semi-honey, which may be a type of honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
To the north is Fan Yan City, 700 miles away, to the east is Jue Country, 600 miles away, and to the northeast is Guazhou, 6,600 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, Cao Guo even sent envoys to present various local specialties.
It is said that the country of Fu, located more than two thousand li northwest of Shu County, was the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fu, with each tribe governing itself, and their customs are similar to those of Fu, but their languages are somewhat different and not unified. They do not have surnames. The king of Fu is called Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li wide from southeast to northwest; without city walls, they live in strategic locations near valleys and mountains. The people there love revenge, so they build stone structures resembling bird nests to evade their enemies. These "stone structures" can reach over ten zhang in height, with some as short as five or six zhang, and each floor is over a zhang high and separated by wooden partitions. The base is only three to four steps square, and the top is two to three steps wide, resembling pagodas. There’s a small door on the ground floor, and they must close the door at night to keep thieves out. The country has over twenty thousand households, all under the king's authority. The Jialiang Yi tribe follows their chieftain, punishing serious crimes with death and minor offenses with a fine of a cow. They are nimble and skilled swordsmen. They use lacquered leather for armor, bows six chi long with strings made of bamboo. They practice polyandry, marrying multiple women, including sisters-in-law; if a brother's son dies, the father marries his widow. They enjoy singing and dancing, playing drums and flutes. When someone dies, there is no specific mourning dress; the body is placed on a high platform, cleaned, dressed in armor, and covered with animal skins. The children do not cry; instead, they dance in armor with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by ghosts! I will avenge him and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry three times before stopping. Women are required to cover their faces while crying. The family slaughters a cow, and relatives bring wine and pork to drink and eat together before the burial. A grand funeral is held ten years later, where friends and family are invited, and horses are sacrificed, sometimes numbering in the dozens. They honor their ancestors by erecting ancestral shrines. They wear leather hats that are round like bowls, some with additional coverings. Most of their clothing is made from fur, while their shoes are crafted from entire cow hides. They wear iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftain adorn themselves with gold jewelry, including a gold flower about three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The area is elevated, with a cool climate, strong winds, and little rainfall. The land is ideal for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains yield gold and silver, along with numerous white pheasants. There is a prized fish in the river that grows up to four feet long, with very fine scales.
Paragraph 2: In conclusion, the lives of the Fu and Jialiang Yi people are vastly different from ours today. The stone nests they live in sound truly unique, tall and layered like a giant beehive. Their customs of seeking revenge are also quite frightening, which suggests that living there requires caution. Furthermore, their marriage customs are completely different from ours now, such as marrying one’s sisters-in-law and practicing polyandry, which seems almost unimaginable today. However, they enjoy singing and dancing, illustrating that people have always appreciated beautiful things, no matter the era. Their grand funerals are quite elaborate, involving the sacrifice of dozens of horses, demonstrating their reverence for ancestors. Overall, their way of life merges the ruggedness of primitive tribes with distinctive cultural traits. After reading this passage, it feels as if one has traveled back to ancient times and experienced the unique life of the southwestern tribes.
In 608 AD, during the fourth year of Emperor Yangdi's Daye reign of the Sui Dynasty, their king sent eight people to the court as tribute. The following year, his student Yilin brought sixty Jialiang Yi people to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but the route was too treacherous and impassable, so they requested Emperor Yangdi to open a mountain road for easier tribute in the future. However, Emperor Yangdi deemed it too troublesome and burdensome, so he declined.
There is a river in the Jialiang Yi territory, approximately sixty to seventy zhang wide; in Fu Guo, there is also a river that is over a hundred zhang wide, both flowing southward. They crafted boats from animal skins to cross the rivers.
To the south of the country of Fu live the Bo Yuan Yi, whose customs and habits are similar to those of the Jialiang Yi. To the west of the country of Fu, there is a matriarchal kingdom. To the northeast of the country of Fu, mountains stretch for thousands of miles, all the way to the Dangxiang region. Qiang tribes are scattered throughout the mountains: Dazuo Feng, Xiaozuo Feng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Dahai, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nae, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, with no major leaders to govern them. Their customs and habits are similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some are vassals of the Tuyuhun, and some are attached to the country of Fu. During the Sui Dynasty, these Qiang tribes all came to the court to pay tribute. In order to manage these areas, the court established several governors on the southwestern border, responsible for long-distance governance.
Historical records indicate that since ancient times, to expand the borders and establish trade with distant lands, one must rely on emperors with open-mindedness, and also on ministers who are enthusiastic about such matters. Zhang Qian opened the route to the Western Regions before, and Ban Chao later joined the military, continuing the development of the Western Regions. They either used treasures to buy or used force to intimidate, risking their lives for fleeting glory, all because the emperor valued the border and the ministers were willing to dedicate themselves to it. Therefore, it is said that what the emperor favors, the subjects will favor even more.
Emperor Yang of Sui, with ambitions to surpass the Qin and Han dynasties, had Pei Ju present the "Record of the Western Regions" to please him. Consequently, Emperor Yang of Sui personally went to Yumen Pass and established places like Yiwu and Qiemo. As a result, the area west of Guanzhong all the way to the Lop Desert was in chaos, causing immense suffering for the common people. If the northern nomadic tribes had not harassed them, and victories had been achieved in the east, Emperor Yang of Sui would certainly have continued to build military camps at Luntai, fortify cities at Wulei, and even sought pearls from Daqin, bringing back ostrich eggs and transporting them back and forth—what an exhausting endeavor that would be! Ancient wise emperors focused only on stabilizing the Central Plains, not bothering with remote and desolate areas. Were they lacking in prestige and virtue? No, they simply did not want trouble on the borders to burden the people of the Central Plains, nor did they want unproductive issues to delay useful ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty guarded the Wuling, and the Han Dynasty deployed troops on the three borders, resulting in either widespread famine or a halving of the population. The Sui Dynasty, despite its perceived strength, ultimately faced significant hardships in Qinghai. All of this was because the emperors themselves chose the wrong course, causing the common people to suffer.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could seriously consider this principle, firmly reject the requests of the officials to go on missions, return the thousand-mile horse, and refuse the tributes of white wolves, then even if the various tribes of the Western Regions only sent envoys to pay tribute, even if there were no brilliant victories like the Liaodong Campaign, how could they end up like Emperor Yang of Sui, meeting a miserable death in Jiangdu?
Kucha, situated 170 li south of the White Mountains, was an ancient country during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname was Bai, with the style name Suni Die. The capital city was six li long, with just a few thousand soldiers. The local customs were strict: murderers faced the death penalty, and robbers would lose one arm and one leg. Their customs resembled those of Yanqi. The king wore a colorful ribbon tied around his head, trailing down the back, and sat on a throne made of golden lions. The region was rich in rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, cinnabar, green vitriol, orpiment, vermilion, fine horses, and plump cattle. From Kucha, it was nine hundred li to Yanqi in the east, fourteen hundred li to Yutian in the south, fifteen hundred li to Shule in the west, over six hundred li to the Tujue Ya in the northwest, and thirty-one hundred li to Guazhou in the southeast. During the Sui Dynasty, Kucha also dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
Shule, also located over a hundred li south of the White Mountains, was an ancient country during the Han Dynasty. The king's name was Amijue. The inhabitants of this region had six fingers on each hand and foot. If a child was born with fewer than six fingers, they didn't survive long. The capital city was five li long. There were twelve large cities and dozens of small cities within the country, with two thousand soldiers. The king donned a hat adorned with golden lions. The region was rich in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, orpiment, and was required to pay tribute to the Tujue annually. To the south of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west stands the Congling Mountains, fifteen hundred li to the east is Kucha, a thousand li to the west is the Xiongnu country, eight to nine hundred li to the south is Zhuju Bo, over a thousand li to the northeast is Tujue Ya, and forty-six hundred li to the southeast is Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, Shule also dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred miles north of the Onion Range, the king's surname is Wang, and his courtesy name is Beishibi Lian. The capital city has a circumference of about eight or nine miles. There are five major cities in the country, as well as dozens of smaller cities, with only a few thousand soldiers available for battle. The common people follow Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns, and the king often follows a vegetarian diet. Fifty miles south of the city lies the Zanmo Temple, believed to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu Zhan, with traces of the Buddha's bare feet on the stones. "The Zanmo Temple is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu Zhan, with traces of the Buddha's barefoot followers on the stones." Five hundred miles to the west is the Bimo Temple, believed to be the place where Laozi became a Buddha after converting the barbarians. "Five hundred miles to the west of Khotan is the Bimo Temple, believed to be the place where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhas." The people of this place lack propriety and integrity, with many thieves and robbers, and their behavior is quite licentious. The king wears a brocade hat and a golden crown, while the queen adorns herself with golden flowers. The king's hair is not allowed to be seen by others, as locals believe that seeing the king's hair brings bad luck for the year. This region produces a wealth of hemp, wheat, millet, rice, various fruits, and boasts many gardens, as well as beautiful jade from the mountains. To the east lies Shanshan, fifteen hundred miles away, to the south is the Kingdom of Women, three thousand miles away, to the west is Zhuqubo, a thousand miles away, to the north is Kucha, fourteen hundred miles away, and to the northeast lies Guazhou, twenty-eight hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they often dispatched envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Qaghan, located over five hundred miles west of the Onion Range, was formerly known as Qusou. The king's surname is Zhaowu, with the style of Aliqi. The capital city is about four miles in circumference, with several thousand soldiers ready for battle. The king sits on a chair crafted from gold and shaped like a ram, and the queen wears golden flowers. This region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east is Shule, a thousand miles away, to the west is the country of Sufengshana, five hundred miles away, to the northwest is the country of Shiguo, five hundred miles away, to the northeast lies Tujue, over two thousand miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, five thousand five hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Tuhuoluo, located 500 miles west of Congling, shares its territory with the people of Yida Country. The capital city is only two miles in circumference. However, they have an impressive army of 100,000 skilled soldiers, all of whom practice Buddhism. A unique custom here involves brothers sharing a single wife, taking turns to sleep with her. The brother who goes in to sleep hangs his clothes outside the door as a mark. The children born belong to the eldest brother. It is said that there are magical horses in the caves in the mountains. Every spring, when mares are taken to the caves, they give birth to exceptional foals. It is 1,700 miles south to Cao Country and 5,800 miles east to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
Yida Country, located roughly 200 miles south of the Wuxu River, was established by the descendants of the Yuezhi. They boast an army of about 5,000 to 6,000 brave and battle-hardened soldiers. Previously, the country was in turmoil, and the Turks intervened, installing a leader known as Jieqiang. Their capital city is approximately ten miles in diameter, featuring numerous temples and pagodas adorned with gold. They have a custom of brothers sharing wives. If a woman has only one husband, she wears a single horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on her hat increases. Yida Country is 1,500 miles from Cao Country and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
Miguo Country, located west of Namishi River, was previously the territory of the Kangju. This country is ruled by Lord Zhaowushi Bi Zhuo, a collateral relative of the Kangju king. Their capital city is only two miles square, with merely a few hundred soldiers. Miguo Country is 100 miles from Kang Country, 500 miles from Suduoshana Country, 200 miles from Siguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they regularly sent tribute.
The Shi Kingdom, ten miles south of the Du Mo Shui, used to be the territory of the Kangju. Their king was surnamed Zhaowu and given the courtesy name Tizhe, and was also a distant relative of the Kangju king. The capital city was only two miles in size, boasting over a thousand soldiers. Their customs were similar to those of the Kangju. The Shi Kingdom was 240 miles from Kangju, 500 miles from the Tuholo, 200 miles from Nasiboguo, 200 miles from Miguo, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Cao Kingdom, a few miles south of the Namisi River, used to be the territory of the Kangju as well. This kingdom did not have its own ruler but was managed by the son of the Kangju king, named Wu Jian. The capital city was three miles in size, boasting over a thousand soldiers. The Cao Kingdom had a mysterious deity that was revered by countries east of the Western Sea. This deity had a golden statue that was five feet wide and proportionately tall. It required daily offerings of five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep, leaving behind leftovers that even thousands couldn't finish. The Cao Kingdom was 100 miles from Kangju, 150 miles from Heguo, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The He Kingdom, also located a few miles south of the Namisi River, used to be the territory of the Kangju. Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and given the courtesy name Dun, was a relative of the Kangju king. The capital city was two miles in size, with a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne fashioned from gold in the shape of a sheep. The He Kingdom was 150 miles from the Cao Kingdom, 300 miles from Xiaoanguo, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Wunahé, with its capital built on the west side of the Wu River, was previously part of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the style name Foshi. The capital city stretches two li along its walls, with only a few hundred troops. The king's throne is a golden chair shaped like a sheep. Traveling northeast for four hundred li leads to Anguo, while heading northwest for over two hundred li leads to Muguo, and traveling east for seven thousand five hundred li leads to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they sent envoys to offer tribute of local specialties.
Muguo, whose capital is also on the west side of the Wu River, was also part of the former territory of the Anxi Kingdom and neighbors Wunahé. Their king also has the surname Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom king, with the style name Alanmi. The capital city stretches three li along its walls, with two thousand elite soldiers. Traveling northeast for five hundred li leads to Anguo, heading east for over two hundred li leads to Wunahé, traveling west for over four thousand li leads to the Persian Kingdom, and traveling east for seven thousand seven hundred li leads to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they also sent envoys to offer tribute of local specialties.
As for the Persian Kingdom, it is located on the west side of the Dūdáhé River in the city of Sulin, which is the ancient Tiaozhi. Their king is called Kusawu. The capital covers an area of about ten li. They have over twenty thousand fierce soldiers who charge into battle on elephants. This country does not have the death penalty, and the harshest punishments involve amputating hands and feet, confiscating property, shaving off beards, or wearing a wooden sign around the neck for differentiation. Everyone over the age of three must pay a tax of four coins. They also have the custom of marrying their sisters. When someone dies, they are placed on the mountains, and the family is required to wear mourning clothes for a month. The king dons a golden crown adorned with flowers, sits on a throne crafted from golden lions, decorates his beard with gold powder, dresses in brocade robes, and adorns himself with jade ornaments.
The Persian Empire produces fine horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, huge bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a type of gemstone), beast spirit (possibly referring to a gemstone), coral, glazed pottery, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gemstone), huluge (a type of gemstone), huoqi (a type of gemstone), diamonds, gold, silver, jinyu (a type of mineral), copper, bintie (a type of iron), tin, brocade, fine cloth, kush rugs (a type of blanket), tassels (a type of blanket), huna (a type of fabric), yuen cloth (a type of fabric), sandalwood wood, fabric woven with gold thread, red deer skin, vermilion, mercury, and including various spices like xunlu incense, tulip, suhe incense, qingmu incense, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semihoney (possibly referring to a type of syrup), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a medicinal herb), wushizi (a medicinal herb), green vitriol, and realgar. The Turks were unable to conquer Persia and had to adopt a vassalage policy towards them. The Persian Empire often sent envoys to present tribute to the Central Plains dynasty of China.
Persia is hundreds of miles away from the sea, over four thousand miles from the Mu Kingdom (possibly referring to a certain country), four thousand five hundred miles from Fulin (the Byzantine Empire), and eleven thousand seven hundred miles from Guazhou (Dunhuang, Gansu). Emperor Yang of Sui sent Yunqiwei Li Yu to communicate with the Persian Empire, and later sent additional envoys with Li Yu to present special products.
Cao Kingdom, located north of the Congling Mountains, was known as Jibin during the Han Dynasty. In simple terms, this refers to the area near the Pamir Plateau today.
Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and styled Shunda, is a relative of the King of Kang. The capital's city walls stretch about four li. The army is well-trained, boasting over ten thousand troops. The country's laws are quite harsh, mandating the death penalty for murderers and robbers. However, their customs are rather superstitious, with a penchant for peculiar sacrificial rituals.
On Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the God of Shuntian, of impressive scale, lavishly adorned in gold and jade. The roof and floor are crafted from gold and silver, and thousands of people visit to pay their respects daily. In front of the temple, there is a fish spine with a hole in the middle, through which many consider miraculous, even a horse can pass. The king dons a golden crown shaped like a fish and sits on a throne crafted from golden horses – what a sight to behold! This region produces rice, corn, beans, wheat, elephants, horses, and a type of cattle known as Fengniu, along with gold, silver, iron, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, various spices, honey, semi-honey (likely a type of semi-processed honey), black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
Traveling north from Cao country to Fanyan City covers seven hundred li, to the east lies Jue country at six hundred li, and to the northeast is Guazhou at six thousand six hundred li. During the Daye era of the Sui Dynasty under Emperor Yang Guang, they even sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
Speaking of Fu Guo, more than two thousand li northwest of Shu County, it was once the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi east of Fu Guo. They govern themselves, with customs similar to those of Fu Guo, but their language varies somewhat and is not standardized. They do not have surnames. The king of Fu Guo is called Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li long from east to southeast, without city walls, residing near river valleys and in mountainous regions. They have a strong sense of revenge, leading them to build "stone nests" for protection against enemies. These "stone nests" can reach heights of over ten zhang, with some as low as five or six zhang, with each layer about one zhang high, separated by wooden beams. A small door is located on the ground floor, and it must be closed at night to deter thieves. There are over twenty thousand households in the country, all obedient to the king. The Jialiang Yi, on the other hand, follow their chieftain, facing execution for serious crimes and a fine of a cow for minor offenses. They are all agile and skilled in swordsmanship. They wear lacquered leather armor and use bows six feet long with strings made of bamboo. They have the custom of marrying their brothers' widows and sisters-in-law; if a brother dies, the elder brother will marry the younger brother's wife. They take pleasure in singing and dancing, as well as playing drums and flutes. When someone dies, there are no elaborate funeral customs; they simply place the body on a high bed, clean it, dress it in armor, and cover it with animal skins. The children do not weep; instead, they don armor and dance with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by ghosts, I will avenge and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry three times, while women must cover their faces with their hands when crying. The family of the deceased slaughters cattle, while relatives bring pork and alcohol to share a meal before the burial. After ten years, they hold a grand burial, where relatives and friends gather, and dozens of horses are slaughtered. They honor their ancestors at ancestral shrines. They wear round leather hats resembling bowls, some even featuring face masks. Most of their clothing is made of fur, and their boots are crafted from whole cowhide. They wear iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftains adorn themselves with gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower about three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The region is elevated, with a cool climate, strong winds, and little rainfall, making it suitable for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains are rich in gold and silver mines and host many white pheasants. The rivers yield a type of fish that grows up to four feet long, featuring very fine scales.
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In conclusion, the lives of the Fu Kingdom and Jialiang Yi were very different from ours. Their stone dwellings, which sound quite unique, were designed to defend against enemies while taking advantage of the terrain. Their customs, such as marrying multiple sisters-in-law and waiting ten years for grand burials, were quite peculiar. Judging from their clothing and weapons, they were evidently skilled in combat. Their love for song and dance shows that they had a lighter, more enjoyable side to their lives. However, their tendency for revenge gave them a fierce reputation. Overall, this passage paints a vivid picture of the lives of an ancient and mysterious people, full of exotic charm. Their unique customs and harmonious way of living with nature are worth contemplating and exploring. From the details of their lives, we can also catch a glimpse of some aspects of the society at that time, as well as their understanding of life and death.
In 608 AD, during the fourth year of Emperor Yang of Sui's Daye reign, a king known as "Its King" sent eight members of the Su Kingdom to the court as tributes.
The following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but they couldn't get through because of the dangerous terrain, so they asked Emperor Yang of Sui to open a mountain road to make future tributes easier. However, Emperor Yang of Sui thought it was too much trouble and refused their request.
There was a river about sixty to seventy zhang wide along the border of Jialiang Yi, and on the Fu Kingdom side, there was a river over a hundred zhang wide, both flowing south. They made boats from animal skins to cross the river.
To the south of the kingdom of Fu, there is a tribe called Boyuanyi, whose customs are similar to those of the Jialiangyi. To the west of the kingdom of Fu, there is a matriarchal society. In the northeast of the kingdom of Fu, rolling mountains stretch all the way to the Dangxiang area. The mountains are home to various Qiang tribes, such as Dazuofeng, Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nae, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao, and others. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a strong leader. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some are governed by Tuyuhun, while others are attached to the kingdom of Fu. During the reign of Sui Yangdi, these tribes all came to the court to pay tribute. In order to manage these areas, the court set up several administrative offices to oversee these areas from afar.
Historical records indicate that since ancient times, if one wishes to expand borders and trade with far-off lands, one must encounter an ambitious emperor and have ministers eager to undertake significant endeavors. Zhang Qian opened the road to the Western Regions back then, and Ban Chao later joined the army, continuing the conquest of the Western Regions. They either bought their way with precious treasures or intimidated with sharp swords, risking their lives for fleeting glory. All of this is because the emperor likes the reputation of expanding territory, and the ministers are ready to go to great lengths for their country. Thus, what those in power desire, the common people will likely embrace even more.
Emperor Yang of Sui was extremely extravagant, even more extravagant than those of the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju presented the "Records of the Western Regions" to appeal to his extravagant tastes. As a result, the emperor personally went outside the Yumen Pass and established places like Yiwu and Qumo, creating turmoil in the Guanzhong region right up to the desert's edge, resulting in great hardship for the common people. If it weren't for the northern nomadic tribes causing trouble and the eastern barbarians winning battles, Emperor Yang of Sui could have built military camps at Luntai, constructed cities at Wulei, sought pearls from Daqin, and brought bird eggs from Tiao Zhi, leading to the exhaustion of countless individuals from the constant transportation. The wise emperors of ancient times ruled within a radius of about five thousand miles, mainly focusing on governing the Central Plains region, without concerning themselves with those distant regions. Does this imply they lacked prestige and benevolence? No, they simply didn't want the barbarians of the border regions to burden the people of the Central Plains or let useless matters harm useful ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops at the Five Ridges, the Han Dynasty used troops on the three borders, resulting in either widespread famine or a halving of the population. The Sui Dynasty, in its hubris, ultimately faced severe consequences in Qinghai. All of this was because the emperor himself lost his direction, resulting in the suffering of the common folk. If Emperor Yang of Sui could seriously consider these principles, reject the proposals to establish protectorates, return the fine horses, and refuse the tribute of white wolves, then even if the western minority tribes sought to pay tribute, they would have to bide their time. Even without the victory in Liaodong, they would not have met the tragic downfall of Jiangdu!
The Yanqi Kingdom, situated 70 miles south of Mount Bai, is an ancient country from the Han Dynasty era. Their king's surname is Long, whose style name is Tuqi. The capital city stretches two miles along its walls. The kingdom comprises nine cities and boasts over a thousand elite soldiers. However, the governance is rather chaotic and lacks proper regulations. Their customs include the veneration of Buddhist texts, which is somewhat akin to Brahmanism. Marriage customs are akin to those found in the Central Plains. Upon death, individuals are cremated, and the mourning period lasts for seven days. All men have their hair cut. The Yanqi Kingdom is abundant in fish, salt, bulrush, and reeds, with a good geographical location. To the east lies Gaochang, 900 miles away, and to the west, Kucha, also 900 miles distant. During the Sui Dynasty, they even dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kucha Kingdom, situated 170 miles south of Mount Bai, is also an ancient country from the Han Dynasty era. Their king's surname is Bai, whose style name is Sunidie. The capital city stretches six miles along its walls, with several thousand elite soldiers. Their laws stipulate "a life for a life" in cases of murder, and robbers are punished by having one arm and one leg amputated. Other customs closely resemble those of the Yanqi Kingdom. The king adorns his head with colorful ribbons, hanging down behind, and sits on a throne made of gold lions. The Kucha Kingdom is rich in rice, millet, beans, wheat, along with copper, iron, lead, deer hides, woolen blankets, gold dust, turquoise, realgar, cinnabar, musk, and frankincense, as well as fine horses and a cattle breed known as Fengniu. To the east lies Yanqi, 900 miles away; to the south, Yutian is 1,400 miles distant; to the west, Shule is 1,500 miles away; to the northwest, it is over 600 miles to the Tujue tribe; and to the southeast, it is 3,100 miles to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they too dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The country of Shule, over a hundred miles south of the White Mountains, is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. Their king is named Amijue, and he has six fingers on each hand and foot! Children born without six fingers often do not survive long. The capital city spans five miles. The country has twelve large cities, dozens of small cities, and a force of two thousand elite troops. The king wears a hat adorned with golden lions. Shule is abundant in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, silk, and realgar, and they send tribute to the Turks annually. The Yellow River lies to the south of Shule, to the west lies the Congling Mountains, to the east lies Gaochang, 1,500 miles distant, to the west lies the Khaganate, 1,000 miles away, to the south lies Zhu Jubo, approximately 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast lies the capital of the Turks, over 1,000 miles distant, and to the southeast lies Guazhou, 4,600 miles distant. During the Sui Dynasty, they also dispatched envoys to present local products as tribute.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred li north of the Tianshan Mountains, the king's surname is Wang, with the style name Beishibilian (北示闭练). The capital city spans about eight or nine li in circumference. There are five major cities in the country, as well as dozens of smaller cities, with just a few thousand troops. The common people follow Buddhism, with many monks and nuns, and the king often practices vegetarianism and sutra recitation. Fifty li south of the city, there is a Zammam Monastery, which is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikku Bilu. The monastery's stones still bear the footprints of the Buddha. Five hundred li to the west of the city, there is a Bimo Monastery, believed to be the place where Laozi converted the barbarians into Buddhists. The locals are known for their lack of propriety and have a reputation for being quite unruly, with many thieves. The king sports a brocade cap and a golden crown shaped like a rat, while his queen wears golden flowers. The king's hair is not to be seen by others, because it's believed that seeing his hair brings bad luck for the year. The region is abundant in hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and various fruits, with gardens and plenty of jade found in the mountains. To the east lies Shanshan, fifteen hundred li away, to the south is the Land of Women, three thousand li away, to the west is Chuguapo, a thousand li away, and to the north is Kucha, fourteen hundred li away, with Guazhou to the northeast, twenty-eight hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, they often sent envoys bearing tribute.
In the country of Qocho, over five hundred li to the west of the Tianshan Mountains, formerly known as the Quzhou Kingdom, the king's surname is Zhaowu, with the style name Aliqi. The capital city is four li in circumference, with a few thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from golden sheep, while his queen wears golden flowers. The region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east lies Shule, a thousand li away, to the west is the Sufengshana Kingdom, five hundred li away, to the northwest is the Shiguo Kingdom, five hundred li away, to the northeast is the Tujue Yayingshi camp, over two thousand li away, and to the east is Guazhou, five thousand five hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to present various local specialties as tribute.
Tocharian Kingdom, located 500 miles west of the Congling Mountains, coexists with Yida Kingdom. The capital city boasts a circumference of two miles. They are formidable, boasting an army of 100,000 elite soldiers, each a skilled warrior. They also follow Buddhism. There is a unique custom in this place where several brothers share one wife and take turns sleeping with her; each time one enters the room, he hangs his clothes outside as a marker. Any children born are considered the eldest's. Legend has it that a divine horse resides in the mountain caves, and each year, they give birth to exceptional foals. To the south lies Cao Kingdom, 1,700 miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, 5,800 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they too sent envoys to pay tribute.
Yida Kingdom, located over 200 miles south of the Wuhu River, is descended from the Yuezhi. They have five or six thousand soldiers who are good at fighting, with a fierce and warlike temperament. The country was a bit chaotic before, so the Turks appointed a man named Tong Shezijiang as their king. Their capital city is about ten miles in circumference, with many temples and towers adorned with gold. Polyandry is a common practice there, and if a woman has only one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if her husband has multiple brothers, the number of horns on her hat increases accordingly. Yida Kingdom is 1,500 miles from Cao Kingdom and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they too sent envoys to pay tribute.
Miguo, situated west of the Nami River, was formerly part of the Kangju territory. They have no king, and the leader in the city is named Zhaowu, a branch of the Kang king, with the nickname Bizhuo. Their capital city is only two miles in size, boasting only a few hundred soldiers. Miguo is a hundred miles from Kang Kingdom, five hundred miles from Suduoshana Kingdom, two hundred miles from Shiguo, and six thousand four hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they frequently paid tribute to the east and west.
Shi Kingdom, situated ten li south of the Dumo River, was previously the territory of the Kangju. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, whose courtesy name was Ti Zhe, and he was a distant relative of the Kang Kingdom. Their capital city was only two li in area, boasting over a thousand soldiers. Their customs were similar to those of the Kang Kingdom. Shi Kingdom was 240 li away from Kang Kingdom, 500 li from the Tokhara, 200 li from the Nasebo Kingdom, 200 li from the Mi Kingdom, and 6,500 li from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute to both the east and the west.
Cao Kingdom, situated a few li south of the Nami River, was also previously the territory of the Kangju. The kingdom lacked its own ruler, and the Kang King appointed his son Wu Jian to govern it. Their capital city was three li in circumference, fielding over a thousand soldiers. Cao Kingdom had a very powerful deity, worshipped by nations to the east of the Western Sea. This deity was represented by a golden statue, measuring over five feet in width and height. Every day, five camel loads, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were sacrificed to it, with the leftover offerings sufficient to feed a thousand people. Cao Kingdom was 100 li from Kang Kingdom, 150 li from He Kingdom, and 6,600 li from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute to both the east and the west.
He Kingdom, situated a few li south of the Nami River, was also previously the territory of the Kangju. Their king was also a relative of the Kang King, with the surname Zhaowu. Their capital city was only two li in area, with a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne crafted from gold in the shape of a sheep. He Kingdom was 150 li away from Cao Kingdom, 300 li from Xiao'an Kingdom, and 6,750 li from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute to both the east and the west.
The country of Wunaho, whose capital lies to the west of the Wuhu River, was once part of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the style name Foshi. The capital's city walls stretched two miles, with just a few hundred elite troops. The king sat on a golden throne in the shape of a sheep. To the northeast, Anguo was four hundred miles away, over two hundred miles to Muguo to the northwest, and seven thousand five hundred miles to Guazhou to the east. During the reign of Sui Emperor Yang, they even sent envoys to offer local products as tribute.
Muguo, whose capital is also on the west bank of the Wuhu River, was another former territory of the Anxi Kingdom and neighbored Wunaho. Their king also has the surname Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the style name Alanmi. The capital's city walls stretched three miles, with two thousand elite troops. To the northeast, it was five hundred miles to Anguo, over two hundred miles to Wunaho to the east, over four thousand miles to Persia to the west, and seven thousand seven hundred miles to Guazhou to the east. During the reign of Emperor Yang, they also sent envoys to offer local products as tribute.
Persia, located west of the Douda River in the city of Sulun, known in ancient times as Tiaozhi. Their king was named Kusahe. The capital was approximately ten miles in diameter. They had over twenty thousand fierce soldiers, with some soldiers riding elephants into battle. In this country, there was no death penalty. For crimes, offenders could have their hands and feet amputated, property confiscated, be shaved, or have a wooden board tied around their neck as a form of punishment. People over three years old were required to pay four coins each year. They also practiced marrying their own sisters. When someone died, they were disposed of on the mountain, and family members had to wear mourning clothes for a month. The king wore a golden flower crown, sat on a throne made of golden lions, adorned his beard with gold powder, wore brocade robes, and adorned himself with jade ornaments, truly opulent and grand.
This place produces good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, huge bird eggs, as well as pearls, porphyry (a gemstone), beast spirit (a gemstone), coral, glass, agate, crystal, sese (a gemstone), huluoji (a gemstone), luteng (a gemstone), huoqi (a gemstone), diamonds, gold, silver, jinyushi (a mineral), copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, silk, fine cloth, felt (a type of woolen blanket), fur, huna (a fabric), yuenobu (a fabric), sandalwood, gold-threaded fabric, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, and agarwood, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, half-sugar (a type of sugar), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helile (a fruit), wushizi (a fruit), malachite (a mineral), and orpiment (a mineral). The Turks were unable to defeat them and thus established a tributary relationship. The Persian kingdom often sent envoys to pay tribute.
Several hundred miles to the west of Persia is the sea, to the east over four thousand miles is the Mu Kingdom, to the northwest over four thousand five hundred miles is the Byzantine Empire, and to the east over eleven thousand seven hundred miles is Gua Kingdom. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sent Captain Li Yu of the Yunqi as an envoy to Persia, and later sent someone to accompany Li Yu to pay tribute with some special products.
Cao Kingdom, north of the Congling Mountains, was called the Jibin Kingdom during the Han Dynasty. The king of this country was named Zhaowu, courtesy name Shunda, and was a relative of the Kangju king.
The capital city has a perimeter of four li. There are over ten thousand powerful soldiers. The country's laws are very strict, imposing the death penalty for murder and theft. Their customs include various chaotic sacrificial rituals.
On Onion Ridge, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of the Shuntian God. The ceremonies are quite elaborate, with a roof crafted from gold, silver, and copper, and a silver-paved floor. Thousands of people come to worship there daily. In front of the temple stands a fish vertebra, with a hollow center, large enough for horses to pass through.
The king wears a crown shaped like a goldfish, seated on a golden throne shaped like a horse. The region is rich in rice, millet, beans, wheat, and abundant wildlife including elephants, horses, and wild oxen, as well as gold, silver, brass, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, sandalwood, and various spices, along with rock honey, half honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
To the north, Fan Yan City lies seven hundred li away; to the east, the Jie Kingdom is six hundred li away; and to the northeast, Gua State is six thousand six hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Cao Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute with local specialties.
Fu Guo, situated over two thousand li northwest of Shu Commandery, is the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fu Guo, whose customs are similar to those of Fu Guo, though their languages are not unified. They do not have surnames. The king of Fu Guo is named Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south, and fifteen hundred li long from southeast to northwest, without city walls, built near rivers and valleys, relying on dangerous mountains. They have a strong inclination for revenge, which leads them to construct "stone nests" from piled stones to evade their enemies. These "stone nests" reach heights of over ten zhang, with the shortest being five to six zhang. Each layer is about one zhang high, separated by wood. The base measures approximately three to four steps wide, tapering to two to three steps wide at the top, resembling a pagoda. There is a small door on the ground floor, and one must close it at night to prevent thieves. The country comprises over twenty thousand households, all subject to the king's commands. The laws of the Jialiang Yi are issued by the chieftain, with capital punishment for serious crimes and a fine of a cow for lesser offenses. They are nimble and proficient in sword fighting. They use lacquered leather for armor, with bows six feet long and bowstrings made of bamboo. They marry multiple mothers and sisters-in-law, and if a brother dies, the elder brother will also marry the younger brother's wife. They take pleasure in singing and dancing, accompanied by drums, reed instruments, and flutes. When someone dies, there is no mourning attire; the body is placed on a high bed, washed, dressed, covered with lacquered armor, and then with animal skins. Descendants do not cry; they dance with swords in armor, shouting, "My father was taken by ghosts, I will avenge and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry three times and then stop. Women must cover their faces while crying. The deceased's family slaughters a cow, and relatives bring pigs and wine; everyone drinks and eats together, then buries the deceased. A grand funeral takes place ten years later, attended by relatives and friends, with sacrifices sometimes reaching dozens of horses. They will set up ancestral shrines to worship their ancestors. They typically wear leather hats shaped like bowls, and some also don headscarves. Most of their clothing is crafted from fur and leather, with boots made from whole cowhide. They wear iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their hands. The king and chieftains adorn themselves with gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower about three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The terrain is elevated, characterized by a cool, windy climate with minimal rainfall. The mountains yield gold and silver, and are home to many white pheasants. The river is home to a prized fish that grows up to four feet long, with very fine scales.
In the year 608 AD, in the fourth year of Emperor Yang of Sui's Dàyè reign, their king sent eight people to the court as tribute. The following year, he sent his student Yílín along with sixty members of the Jiāliáng Yí tribe to present tribute. They wanted to offer fine horses, but due to the difficult terrain, they were unable to make the journey, so they requested the opening of a mountain road for future tribute missions. Emperor Yáng of Sui found it too troublesome and did not agree.
Near the Jiāliáng Yí tribe, there is a river about sixty to seventy zhang wide; to the west of the neighboring country lies a matriarchal society. To the northeast of the neighboring country is a continuous range of mountains stretching for thousands of miles, extending all the way to the Dāngxiàng region. In the mountains, there are numerous Qiang tribal groups, including Dàzuǒfēng, Xiǎozuǒfēng, Xīwèi, and Gěyán. These tribes live in deep mountain valleys without a major leader to govern them. Their customs are similar to those of the Dāngxiàng people; some are under the influence of the Túyúhún, while others are attached to the neighboring country. During the Dàyè period of Emperor Yáng of Sui, these Qiang tribal groups all came to the court to offer tribute. In order to manage these areas, the court established various regional commanders on the southwestern border to oversee these areas from afar.
Historians say: throughout history, in order to open up remote areas and establish connections with border regions, there needs to be a broad-minded monarch and ministers ready to undertake significant tasks for the nation. Zhang Qian had already paved the way to the Western Regions, and Ban Chao later took up arms. They either used treasures to make friends or swords to intimidate, risking their lives for fleeting glory, all because the emperor valued the reputation of the border regions, and the ministers were willing to dedicate themselves to the country. Therefore, it can be said that what those in power favor, those beneath them will prioritize.
Emperor Yang of Sui emulated the extravagance of the Qin and Han dynasties, and to an even greater extent. Pei Ju offered the "Records of the Western Regions" to please him, so Emperor Yang of Sui personally went to Yumen Pass and established Yiwu, Qiemo, and other places. The Guanzhong region and as far as the sandy deserts were in turmoil, and the people's lives were unbearable. If there were no threats from the northern nomadic tribes and good news from the eastern barbarian regions, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely strengthen the border defenses of Luntai, build cities at Wulei, and even seek the bright pearls of Daqin, bringing back the bird eggs of Tiao Zhi. In this way, the influx of goods would surge, and how could the country shoulder such a burden!
Ancient wise rulers governed territories of only about five thousand square miles, dedicating themselves to stabilizing the Central Plains while neglecting the remote and barren regions. Was their prestige not strong enough, or their virtues not widely acknowledged? No, they simply refrained from squandering resources on distant lands and avoided allowing trivial matters to undermine essential ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty guarded the Five Ridges, the Han Dynasty managed the three borders, and the outcomes were either fields strewn with corpses or a drastic population decline. The Sui Dynasty, believing itself to be powerful, ultimately faced a significant defeat in Qinghai. All of this stemmed from the rulers losing their way, leading to the suffering of the common people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui had seriously considered the implications of this situation, refused the Protectorate's request, returned the steed that travels a thousand miles, and not asked for tribute from the White Wolf, then the Seven Rong and Nine Yi tribes would have come to pay tribute on time. Even without the military successes in Liaodong, the tragedy in Jiangdu might have been avoided!
It is said that there is a country, just south of the Congling Mountains, where women have always held power. The reigning queen was named Su Pi, whose courtesy name was Mo Jie, and she ruled as queen for twenty years. Her husband was named Jin Ju, and he had no role in political affairs. The men in the country were primarily warriors. The capital was situated on a mountain, spanning approximately five to six miles, housing tens of thousands of residents. The queen resided in a nine-story palace, served by hundreds of palace maids, and held court only once every five days. There was also a vice queen who handled state affairs alongside her. The customs there highly respected women, held men in low regard, and the women did not get jealous. Both men and women liked to paint their faces, changing colors several times a day. Everyone had disheveled hair, wore leather shoes, and tax collection was arbitrary. The place had a cold climate and primarily depended on hunting for sustenance. It produced various treasures such as jade, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and Shu horses. Notably, salt production was plentiful, often sold to Tianzhu, yielding significant profits! They frequently fought wars with Tianzhu and the Tanguts. After the queen's death, the entire nation would engage in large-scale fundraising, then choose two beautiful and capable young women from the queen's family, one to be the queen and the other to be the vice queen. If a noble died, the deceased's skin would be removed, combined with gold dust, and buried in a bottle with bones and flesh, then wrapped in iron and buried again after a year. They worshipped the Asura god and the tree god, and every year at the beginning of the year, they had to sacrifice to the tree god using either humans or monkeys. After the sacrifice, they would pray in the mountains, and at this time, a bird resembling a female pheasant would land on their hands. They would then open its belly to see if there were grains inside, representing a bountiful harvest, or sand and stones, representing disasters. This was a practice known as bird divination. In the sixth year of Kaihuang, they dispatched envoys to offer tribute, but communication was later severed.
Another country, Yanqi, is located 70 miles south of Baishan and dates back to the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Long, with the style name Tuqi. The capital covers an area of two square miles, boasting nine cities and just over a thousand soldiers. This country has few established customs. They believe in Buddhism, somewhat akin to Brahmanism. Wedding ceremonies resemble those in the Central Plains. When someone dies, they are cremated, and the mourning period lasts seven days. All men shave their heads. Yanqi is abundant in fish, salt, and reeds. To the east, 900 miles away lies Gaochang, and 900 miles to the west is Kucha, both located in the desert. To the southeast, 2,200 miles away, is Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also dispatched envoys to pay tribute to both the east and west.
Kucha, situated 170 miles south of Baishan, is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. The capital is a square city, each side measuring six miles. There are several thousand soldiers capable of fighting. Their customs dictate that murderers must pay with their lives, and robbers face the punishment of losing one arm and one foot. These customs are akin to those of Yanqi. The king wears a colorful ribbon tied around his head, trailing down his back, seated on a throne crafted from golden lions. The region is rich in rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, cymbals, malachite, orpiment, realgar, musk, fine horses, and fat cattle. To the east, Yanqi is 900 miles away; Yutian is 1,400 miles to the south; Shule is 1,500 miles to the west; Tujue lies over 600 miles to the northwest; and Guazhou is 3,100 miles to the southeast. During the Sui Dynasty, Kucha also dispatched envoys to present local products as tribute.
The Kingdom of Shule is situated over a hundred miles south of Baishan and is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. The king of this kingdom is named Amijue. The people there have six fingers on both hands and feet. Children born without six fingers do not tend to survive long. The capital is a square city with each side measuring five miles. There are twelve large cities and dozens of small cities in the kingdom, with a fighting force of two thousand soldiers. The king wears a hat adorned with golden lions. The region is abundant in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, silk, and realgar, which are regularly sent as tribute to the Turks each year. To the south of the Kingdom of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west lies the Khaganate, 1,000 miles away, to the east lies Qiuci, 1,500 miles distant, to the south lies Zhu Jubo, approximately 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast lies the Turkic Yab, over a thousand miles distant, and to the southeast lies Guazhou, 4,600 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Shule also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
In the country of Khotan, the capital is located more than two hundred li north of the Tianshan Mountains. The king's surname is Wang, known as Beishi Bi Lian. The capital city spans about eight or nine li. There are five major cities in the country, as well as dozens of small cities and a few thousand elite soldiers. The common people believe in Buddhism, home to numerous monks and nuns, and the king often observes vegetarianism and recites scriptures. Fifty li south of the city, there is a Zanmo Monastery, said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu Zhan, with the footprints of the Buddha's disciple visible on the temple stones. Five hundred li to the west of Khotan is the Bimo Monastery, believed to be the place where Laozi transformed a barbarian into a Buddha. The locals are often seen as lacking morals and ethics, with many thieves and robbers who are often unruly and lawless. The king dons a brocade cap and a golden crown, while the queen wears golden flowers. The king's hair is not to be seen by anyone, as locals believe that seeing the king's hair will bring misfortune. The region is abundant in hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and fruits, with gardens sprawling across the land and an abundance of beautiful jade in the mountains. To the east, it is 1,500 li to Shanshan, 3,000 li to the Kingdom of Women (Nüguo) to the south, 1,000 li to Zhu Jupo to the west, 1,400 li to Kucha to the north, and 2,800 li to Guazhou to the northeast. During the Sui Dynasty, Khotan often sent envoys to present tributes.
In the country of Chaghan, the capital is located more than five hundred li to the west of the Tianshan Mountains, formerly known as the Qusou Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhaowu, known as Aliqi. The capital city spans about four li. There are also a few thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from golden sheep, and the queen wears golden flowers. The region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east, it is 1,000 li to Shule, 500 li to the Kingdom of Sufengshana to the west, 500 li to the Kingdom of Shigu to the northwest, over 2,000 li to the Tujue Yazhou to the northeast, and 5,500 li to Guazhou to the east. During the Sui Dynasty, envoys also came to present various local specialties.
The Tuluo Kingdom, located 500 miles west of Congling, shares borders with the Yida Kingdom. The capital city covers an area of about two square miles. There are 100,000 elite soldiers, each one a trained warrior. The local population practices Buddhism. A unique custom exists here, where several brothers share one wife, taking turns to sleep with her, and whoever's turn it is hangs their clothes outside the door as a signal. "Brothers share one wife, take turns to sleep; each person entering the room hangs their clothes outside as a mark." Children born are considered the responsibility of the eldest brother. Divine horses inhabit the caves in the mountains, and every year people put mares in the caves, which produce high-quality foals. "In the mountain caves are divine horses; every year the mares are put in the caves, and they will produce famous foals." It is 1,700 miles south to Cao Kingdom and 5,800 miles east to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Yida Kingdom, located south of the Wuxu River, about 200 miles away, descends from the Yuezhi. They have about five to six thousand trained soldiers, known for their fierce and skilled warriors. In the past, the country was not peaceful, and the Turks appointed a man named Tong Shezijiang as their king. Their capital spans about ten square miles, featuring numerous temples and pagodas decorated with gold. They have a custom that allows brothers to share a wife, and if a woman has only one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases accordingly. The Yida Kingdom is 1,500 miles from Cao Kingdom and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Miguo Kingdom, located west of the Namishui River, was once part of the Kangju territory. They do not have a king, and the city lord is named Zhaowu, a branch of the Kang royal family, known by the courtesy name Bizhuo. The capital covers an area of only two square miles, boasting only a few hundred soldiers. Miguo is 100 miles from Kang Kingdom, 500 miles from Suduoshana Kingdom, 200 miles from Siguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also frequently sent tribute.
The Kingdom of Shi, located ten li south of the Du Mo River, was formerly part of the Kangju territory. Their king, Zhaowu, styled Ti Zhe, was a distant relative of the Kang king. The capital spanned an area of two li, boasting a military force of over a thousand soldiers, and their customs were similar to those of the Kang kingdom. The Kingdom of Shi was 240 li from Kang, 500 li from the Tuhuoluo, 200 li from Nasebo, 200 li from Mi, and 6,500 li from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of Cao, located a few li south of the Namishi River, was also formerly part of the Kangju territory. This country did not have its own king, but was governed by the son of the Kang king, named Wu Jian. The capital covered an area of three li, boasting a military force of over a thousand soldiers. The Kingdom of Cao had a very powerful god, worshipped by nations east of the Western Sea. This god had a golden statue, five feet wide with harmonious proportions. Every day, sacrifices were made with five camel humps, ten horses, and a hundred sheep, with leftovers that could feed over a thousand people. The Kingdom of Cao was 100 li from Kang, 150 li from He, and 6,600 li from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Kingdom of He, located a few li south of the Namishi River, was also formerly part of the Kangju territory. Their king was named Zhaowu, a relative of the Kang king, styled Dun. The capital covered an area of two li, with a military force of a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne fashioned from a golden ram. The Kingdom of He was 150 li from Cao, 300 li from Xiao'an, and 6,750 li from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to pay tribute.
Wunahuo, its capital lies to the west of the Wuhu River and was formerly the territory of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's family name is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, whose courtesy name is Foshi. The capital city stretches two miles. It has only a few hundred elite soldiers. The king's throne is a sheep-shaped chair crafted from gold. Anguo is four hundred miles northeast of Wunahuo, Muguo lies over two hundred miles to the northwest, and Guazhou is seven thousand five hundred miles to the east. During the Sui Dynasty, Wunahuo sent envoys to offer tributes of local products.
As for Muguo, its capital is also located to the west of the Wuhu River, the former territory of the Anxi Kingdom, and shares a border with Wunahuo. The king's family name is also Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom king, whose courtesy name is Alanmi. The capital city stretches three miles, boasting two thousand elite soldiers. Anguo lies five hundred miles northeast of Muguo, Wunahuo is over two hundred miles to the east, Persia is over four thousand miles to the west, and Guazhou is seven thousand seven hundred miles to the east. During the Sui Dynasty, Muguo also sent envoys to present tributes of local products.
Speaking of Persia, it is located to the west of the Dahe River, in the place of Sulincheng, which is ancient Tiaozhi. Their king is called Kusahe. The capital city is approximately ten miles in circumference. They boast over twenty thousand formidable soldiers who ride elephants into battle. This country does not have the death penalty; for crimes, the most severe punishment is the amputation of hands or feet, confiscation of property, shaving their beards, or wearing a sign around the neck for differentiation. Everyone over the age of three must pay a tax of four coins. They also practice marrying their own sisters. When someone dies, the body is thrown into the mountains, and the family is required to observe a month of mourning. The king dons a golden flower crown, sits on a throne crafted from golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, wears brocade robes, and embellishes himself with jade accessories.
Persia is abundant in fine horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, as well as large bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a gemstone), beast spirit (a type of gemstone), coral, glazed pottery, agate, crystal, sese (a gemstone), huluoji (a gemstone), luteng (a gemstone), huoqi (a gemstone), diamonds, gold, silver, a stone called jinyu, copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, wool blankets, fur, huna (a type of fabric), yuenobu (a type of fabric), sandalwood, gold-threaded fabric, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as aloeswood, tulips, suhe incense, and sandalwood, as well as pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semihoney (a type of sugar), jujubes, aconite (a medicinal herb), helile (a fruit), wushizi (a fruit), green vitriol, and orpiment, and so on. The Turks were unable to defeat them and could only maintain a loose form of control over them. Persia frequently sent envoys to pay tribute to the Central Plains dynasty. To the west of Persia lies the sea, to the east lies Mu country, to the northwest lies Byzantium, and to the east lies Guazhou. Sui Emperor Yang sent Li Yu of the Cloud Riders to establish diplomatic relations with Persia, and later sent envoys with Li Yu to offer various local specialties as tribute. Cao Kingdom, located just north of the Congling Mountains, was known as Jibin during the Han Dynasty. Ah, speaking of Cao Kingdom, which was located just north of the Congling Mountains, it was known as Jibin during the Han Dynasty.
The king's surname is Zhaowu, and his courtesy name is Shunda, and he is a relative of the King of Kang. The capital's city wall stretches four li around, and there are over ten thousand fierce soldiers. The laws in this country are very strict, where murder and theft are punishable by death. However, their customs are rather peculiar, especially their superstitions about all sorts of chaotic spirits.
The capital city walls of Cao country are only four li long, with just over ten thousand soldiers. However, their laws are very strict, with the death penalty for murder or theft! The people there are particularly superstitious, worshiping all kinds of gods and spirits.
On Congling Mountain, there is a temple honoring the Shuntian God, boasting roofs of gold, silver, and copper, and a floor covered in silver! Every day, there are at least a thousand visitors paying their respects daily! In front of the temple, there's a large fish spine with a hole in the center, that even a horse can pass through! The king wears a hat made of a goldfish head and sits on a throne made of a golden horse, which is quite a sight to behold!
This place produces rice, millet, beans, wheat, elephants, horses, a type of cattle called Feng cattle, as well as gold, silver, bintie (a type of steel), carpets, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, sandalwood, stone honey, semi-honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, white aconite, and more. Northward, it's seven hundred li to Fanyan City, six hundred li to the east to Jue country, and six thousand six hundred li to the northeast to Guazhou. Back in the Sui Dynasty, they even sent envoys to present a variety of special products as tribute.
In this place called Cao Guo, it boasts an abundance of rice, millet, beans, and wheat. There are also many elephants, horses, and a type of livestock known as "fengniu." Not to mention precious gold and silver, as well as bing iron, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, and various spices, such as frankincense and sandalwood, along with stone honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, white fuzi, and so on. It truly has it all! From Cao Guo, heading north for seven hundred li to Fanyan, east for six hundred li to Jue country, and northeast for six thousand six hundred li to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they even dispatched envoys to pay tribute!
It is said that, in the state of Fuguo, located over two thousand li northwest of Shu County, was known as the southwestern barbarian region during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fuguo, where they govern themselves, with customs similar to Fuguo, but their language differs somewhat and lacks unification. They have no surnames. The king of Fuguo is called Yi Zeng. Their country measures eight hundred li long from north to south and one thousand five hundred li wide from southeast to northwest, living near valleys and cliffs without city walls. The people there have a strong sense of revenge, so they build "stone nests" as a refuge from disasters. The "stone nests" can reach heights of over ten zhang and as low as five or six zhang, with each layer about one zhang high, separated by wood. The base measures only three or four steps in width, and the top is two or three steps wide, resembling Buddhist pagodas. There is a small door on the lower level, which must be locked at night to deter thieves. There are more than twenty thousand households in the country, all of whom adhere to the king's orders. The Jialiang Yi tribe listens to their chieftains, and serious crimes are punishable by death, while minor offenses result in a penalty of a cow. They are all quick and adept in swordsmanship, wearing armor crafted from lacquered leather, with six-foot-long bows and bowstrings made of bamboo. They have a custom of marrying multiple wives and their sisters-in-law, and if a brother dies, the surviving brother may marry his deceased brother's widow. They enjoy singing and dancing, accompanied by drums, reed instruments, and flutes. When someone dies, there is no specific mourning attire; the body is placed on a high bed, washed, dressed, covered with lacquered armor, and finally draped with animal skins. The children refrain from crying, instead donning armor and dancing with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by a ghost, I will avenge and kill the ghost!" Other relatives cry three times before stopping. Women must cry with their faces covered. When someone dies, they slaughter cattle, and friends and relatives bring pork and wine; everyone gathers to drink and eat together before burying the deceased. After ten years, a grand burial ceremony is held, inviting relatives and friends, slaughtering horses, often numbering in the dozens. They also set up ancestral shrines for worship. They wear round leather hats resembling bowls, some adorned with face masks. Most of their clothing consists of fur and leather, and their shoes are boots crafted from whole cowhide. They adorn themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftains wear gold jewelry, including a gold flower pendant three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The region has high terrain, a cool climate, strong winds, and little rain, making it suitable for growing wheat and barley. The mountains are rich in gold and silver mines, and home to many white pheasants. The rivers are home to excellent fish, measuring four feet long, with very fine scales.
Second paragraph: In conclusion, the Fuguo and Jialiang Yi regions have unique geographical environments, bold customs, and lifestyles that are vastly different from those in the Central Plains. Their unique "stone nest" architecture and funeral customs reflect their adaptation to the natural environment and their unique understanding of life and death. Although they do not have surnames, their social organization is well-ordered, with kings and chieftains respectively governing different areas, leading to a relatively stable social order. From their clothing, weapons, and way of life, it can be seen that they are a people skilled in hunting and fighting, while also retaining some primitive tribal customs. Although their lives are simple, they also exhibit a unique charm.
In the year 608 AD, during the fourth year of the Daye era under Emperor Yang of Sui, the king known as "the king" sent eight people to Chang'an to meet the emperor.
The following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty Jialiang Yi people to offer tribute. They wanted to present fine horses, but because the road was too treacherous, they could not make the journey, so they requested Emperor Yang of Sui to open a mountain road to facilitate future tribute. However, Emperor Yang of Sui found it too much trouble, so he did not agree.
There is a river in the Jialiang Yi region, around sixty to seventy zhang wide, and another river in the Fuguo region, which is over a hundred zhang wide, both flowing southward, and the locals use animal skins to make boats to cross the river.
To the south of the Kingdom of Fu, there is a tribe called Boyuanyi, whose customs are similar to those of the Jialiangyi tribe. To the west of the Kingdom of Fu, there is a matriarchal kingdom. To the northeast of the Kingdom of Fu, the undulating mountain ranges stretch for thousands of miles, all the way to the Dangxiang region. The mountains are home to numerous Qiang tribes, such as: Dazuofeng, Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nae, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao, and so on. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a strong leader. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some submit to the Tuyuhun, while others depend on the Kingdom of Fu. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, these Qiang tribes all came to Chang'an to offer tribute. In order to manage these areas, the Sui Dynasty established several general offices on the southwestern border to exercise remote governance.
Historical records indicate that since ancient times, to expand the frontier and engage in trade with distant lands, there must be an emperor with a broad mind, as well as a few dedicated ministers. Zhang Qian opened the road to the Western Regions, and Ban Chao later joined the military to continue the Western Regions cause. They either made friends with treasures or used force to intimidate, willing to sacrifice their lives to fulfill the nation's grand ambitions, all because the emperor prioritized frontier expansion, and the ministers were willing to go through fire and water. Therefore, what those in power favor, those below will certainly be more willing to pursue.
Emperor Yang of Sui was notorious for his extravagance and lavishness, even more so than the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju presented the "Records of the Western Regions" to align with his interests. Therefore, Emperor Yang personally went outside the Yumen Pass and established places like Yiwu and Qiemo. As a result, the people in the Guanzhong region stretching to the desert's edge were in a state of panic and unbearable suffering. If the northern nomadic tribes hadn't harassed them and if victories in the east hadn't been secured, Emperor Yang would definitely have strengthened the Lun Tai military camp, built the Wulei city, and found ways to bring in pearls from Da Qin and bird eggs from Tiaozhi for transportation back and forth. The country would have been exhausted!
The wise emperors of ancient times ruled over territories of only about five thousand miles in circumference, and their sole aim was to stabilize the Central Plains, without concerning themselves with the remote and uncivilized regions. Were their prestige not strong enough, or their virtues not widely recognized? No, they simply did not want the barbarians on the borders to exhaust the common folk of the Central Plains or harm the interests of the country. So you see, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops in Lingnan, the Han Dynasty fought on the borders, leading to either widespread famine or a drastic population decline. The Sui Dynasty, believing itself to be powerful, faced significant losses even in Qinghai. All of this was because the emperor took the wrong path, causing the common folk to suffer.
If Emperor Yang of Sui had seriously considered the situation's pros and cons, rejected the suggestions to establish protectorates, sent the horses back, and refused the gifts of white wolves, then even if the western minority tribes did not pay tribute, and even without the victory in Liaodong, how could it have led to the tragic events in Jiangdu?
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