Real Histories
Silla, located in the southeast of Goryeo, was part of the Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandery and was sometimes referred to as Siluo. Previously, the Wei general Muqiu Jian attacked Goryeo and defeated them, which led the people of Goryeo to flee to Wozhu. Some later returned to their original country, but those who remained became the Silla people. Therefore, the Silla people include descendants of Han, Goryeo, and Baekje, and its territory also encompassed areas such as Wozhu, Bunai, and Hanheuk. The king of Silla originally came from Baekje, fled to Silla by sea, and eventually became king. During the reign of King Jinzheng in the Sui Dynasty, in the 14th year of Kaihuang, he dispatched envoys to present tributes. Emperor Yang Jian of the Sui Dynasty appointed Jinzheng as the Chief of the Upper Court, Marquis of Lelang Commandery, and King of Silla.
Previously, Silla was a vassal state of Baekje, but later, due to Baekje attacking Goryeo and the Goryeo people unable to endure the hardships of war, they all sought refuge in Silla, which subsequently grew strong. Silla later became a vassal state of the Garo Kingdom, just as Baekje had done. Silla's official positions were organized into seventeen levels: the first level was known as Ifagan, which was equivalent to a prime minister; followed by Ichigan, Yinggan, Pomigan, Daachigan, Achigan, Yigigan, Shadogan, Fukgan, Danaigan, Naima, Dasha, Xiaoshe, Jitu, Dawu, Xiaowu, and Zhaowei. Additionally, there were counties and districts. Their script and weaponry were similar to those of China.
Silla selected strong men for military service, and specialized military and administrative personnel were stationed at watchtowers, border posts, and patrol units. Silla's customs, legal system, and clothing were similar to those of Goguryeo and Baekje. On the first day of the first month every year, everyone paid New Year's visits to each other; the king hosted a banquet for his courtiers and distributed gifts. On this day, they worshiped the sun and moon deities. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month, a banquet was held where officials competed in archery, and the winners received horses and cloth as prizes. In the event of significant matters, all officials were summoned to deliberate and make decisions. The people of Silla preferred wearing plain clothing. Women braided their hair and adorned it with threads and beads of various colors. Wedding ceremonies were simple, consisting only of a banquet, with the scale determined by the family's wealth. On the wedding night, the bride first met her parents-in-law and then her husband. After death, the deceased were buried in a coffin, and a grave was constructed. Funerals for the king, parents, and wife required a year of mourning. Silla's fertile land was well-suited for both aquatic and terrestrial cultivation. The resources of crops, fruits, vegetables, and wildlife were comparable to those in China. Beginning in the Dae Yeong era of the Sui Dynasty, Silla sent tribute envoys annually. Silla's rugged terrain posed challenges, and despite conflicts with Baekje, Baekje was unable to overcome them.
Mohe, located north of Goryeo, has villages where each has its own leader and lacks any unified leadership. There are a total of seven tribes: the first tribe is called Sumo, adjacent to Goryeo, with several thousand elite warriors, all brave and good at fighting, often raiding Goryeo. The second tribe is called Bopuo, to the north of Sumo, with seven thousand elite warriors. The third tribe is called Anchegu, to the northeast of Bopuo. The fourth tribe is called Fune, to the east of Bopuo. The fifth tribe is called Haoshi, to the east of Fune. The sixth tribe is called Heishui, to the northwest of Anchegu. The seventh tribe is called Baishan, to the southeast of Sumo. Their combined forces do not exceed three thousand, but the Heishui Tribe is especially formidable. East of the Fune Tribe, their arrows are made of stone, similar to those of the ancient Sushen tribe. Most of them live by mountains and rivers, their leader, known as Damofumanduo, is considered a relatively powerful figure among the Eastern Yi tribes.
They have a place called Taishan, which is held in great reverence by the locals. Although there are bears, leopards, and wolves on the mountain, they never harm people, and locals dare not harm them either. The terrain is low-lying and damp, so they build earthen embankments and live in dugouts, with the entrances facing upward and using ladders for access. They primarily cultivate millet, wheat, and sorghum. The local water is salty, causing salt to accumulate on tree bark. They primarily raise pigs. They chew rice to make wine, which can lead to intoxication. Women wear cloth clothes, while men wear pigskin and dogskin clothes. They wash their hands and faces with urine, regarded as the least hygienic of all Yi tribes. Their customs are quite promiscuous, and women tend to be quite jealous. If a wife commits adultery outside and someone tells her husband, the husband may kill his wife. Afterward, he may regret his actions and also kill the informant. As a result, such affairs often remain hidden.
They primarily depend on hunting for their livelihood, using bows that are three feet long and arrows that measure one foot two inches. They usually make poison in July and August, coating the arrowheads with it to shoot and kill birds and animals. Animals hit by poisoned arrows will die immediately.
In the early days of the Sui Dynasty, various barbarian tribes sent envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Wen of Sui received the envoys and said to them, "I have heard that the people in your place are brave and good at fighting. Now that you have come, this is truly what I have long hoped for! I regard you as my own children, and you should honor me as you would your father." The envoys replied, "We live in remote areas, and the journey is quite long. We have heard tales of a wise ruler in the Central Plains, so we have come to pay our respects. Having received your kindness and the honor of seeing Your Majesty in person, we are extremely happy and willing to be your subjects forever."
Their country borders the Khitan in the northwest, and they often raid each other. Later, because these envoys came to pay tribute, Emperor Wen of Sui warned them, saying, "I sympathize with both the Khitan and you, as you are all ordinary people. You should each guard your own territory, so that you can all live in peace and prosperity. Why do you always attack each other? This contradicts my wishes!" The envoys quickly apologized. Emperor Wen of Sui then treated them well and hosted a banquet in the palace. The envoys and their followers stood up and danced, with their dance moves mostly simulating battle scenes. Emperor Wen of Sui watched them and said to his courtiers, "I never expected such a thing to exist in the world. They are always thinking about war, which is truly astonishing!" However, their country is far from the Sui Dynasty, with only Su Mo and Baishan lying relatively nearby.
Emperor Yang of Sui initially faced battles against Goguryeo, suffering repeated defeats. One Goguryeo general named Dudiqi surrendered with his troops. Emperor Yang appointed him as the Right Minister of Rites, allowing him to reside in Liucheng and engage with the local border residents. Dudiqi enjoyed the customs of China and requested to wear Han clothing. Emperor Yang was pleased and rewarded him with many silk fabrics, treating him well. During the Liaodong campaign, Dudiqi led his troops to follow Emperor Yang on expeditions, achieving success in battles and receiving lavish rewards. During his thirteenth year of reign, he visited Jiangdu for leisure and later sent Dudiqi back to Liucheng. On the way back to Liucheng, he encountered the rebellion led by Li Mi. Li Mi's troops intercepted him, leading to over ten skirmishes before Dudiqi barely escaped. He was later captured by Wang Xuba in Gaoyang, but he managed to escape once more and sought refuge with Luo Yi.
The country of Liuqiu is located on an island, to the east of Jian'an commandery, a five-day boat ride away. The region is dotted with caves and mountains. The king of the country is surnamed Huansi, with the name Kela Dou. The exact number of generations of their kingdom is unknown. The locals call the king Elder Yang and the queen Duobatu. They reside in a place called Bolotan Cave, encircled by three layers of moats and fences, with flowing water outside and thorny branch fences. The king's residence is spacious, featuring sixteen rooms, decorated with intricate carvings of birds and animals.
In the area, there is a tree that looks like an orange tree, but the leaves are very dense, and the branches hang down like thin strands of hair. There are four or five chieftains in the area, each in charge of various caves, and each cave is ruled by a small king. In each cave, there are villages, and each village has a bird leader, who are chosen for their combat skills and are responsible for managing village affairs. Both men and women wrap their hair in white ramie ropes, from the back of the neck to the forehead. Men wear feathered hats adorned with beads, shells, and red feathers, each featuring unique designs. Women wear square ribbed white cloth hats. They wear clothes made from animal skins and linen cloth in various colors, as well as animal fur, with a variety of styles. The clothes are decorated with hanging feathers and shells of various colors, and small shells that dangle, producing sounds like ornaments. They wear earrings, bracelets, and necklaces with beads. They weave rattan hats adorned with feathers. They have weapons like knives, spears, bows, arrows, swords, and halberds. Iron is scarce in the area; the blades are thin and small, with many reinforced using bones and horns. They craft armor from linen, and some also use bear and leopard hides. The king sits in a wooden carriage shaped like a beast, carried by attendants on either side, followed by just a few dozen followers. The small king rides in a carved carriage shaped like a beast.
The people of Luqiu enjoy attacking one another; each person is strong, quick on their feet, hard to kill, and has a high tolerance for pain. Each mountain cave fights its own battles without offering support to one another. When the two armies face off, brave soldiers charge to the front, shouting and hurling insults at each other, and then they start shooting arrows. If they lose the battle, the entire army flees, sends envoys to apologize, and then makes peace. The fallen on the battlefield are gathered, consumed, and their skulls are presented to the king. The king rewards them with hats and appoints them as captains. They don’t have taxes; when something is needed, they share the cost equally. Punishments lack fixed standards and are determined on the spot. Crimes are adjudicated by the bird chief; those who defy the judgment are reported to the king, who then consults with his ministers to reach a decision. In prison, there are no shackles—only ropes for binding. The death penalty is inflicted using an iron spike, about as thick as chopsticks and over a foot long, which is stabbed into the head to kill. Minor offenses are dealt with by caning. They lack a written language, instead relying on the phases of the moon to track the seasons and observing the growth and decay of plants to keep track of the years.
It is said that the people in this place have deep-set eyes, high noses, and resemble the Hu people somewhat, and they are quite intelligent. They do not have distinctions between ruler and subject, and they don't have kneeling rituals either. Fathers and sons even share a bed. Men keep their facial and body hair completely shaved off. Women tattoo their hands with designs often featuring insects or snakes. When getting married, they exchange wine, food, beads, and shells as part of the betrothal gifts, or if a man and woman are in love, they become husband and wife. After giving birth, women must eat the placenta, then they roast their bodies over a fire to induce sweating, and they will recover in five days. They use wooden troughs to evaporate seawater into salt, tree sap to make vinegar, and rice and wheat to brew lightly flavored alcohol. They eat with their hands, and if they find something particularly good, they first offer it to their elders. At banquets, the person giving the toast has to wait to be called before they can drink, even when toasting the king, they must use the king's name. They drink together, similar to the Turks, singing and dancing while stamping their feet, with one person singing and everyone joining in, the songs are quite mournful. During dances, men hold women's shoulders and dance together. When someone is dying, as their breath fades, the body is taken to the courtyard, where family and friends mourn with tears. The body is then washed, wrapped in cloth and then in reeds, and buried right there without a tomb. Sons honor their fathers by not eating meat for several months. In the south, when someone dies, the whole village gathers to eat the body together.
In the mountains of this place, there are many bears, Asian black bears, jackals, and wolves, along with numerous pigs and chickens, but lacking cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses. The land is fertile, and they first burn the land with fire before irrigating it with water. They use a long wooden stick to plow the land, with a stone blade at the front end, about one foot long and several inches wide. The land here is suitable for growing rice, millet, foxtail millet, sorghum, hemp, beans, as well as adzuki beans, mung beans, black beans, and so on. The trees include maple, catalpa, camphor, pine, Chinese parasol tree, nanmu, cedar, bamboo, vines, fruit trees, and medicinal herbs, sharing customs and climate similar to those of Lingnan.
The locals worship mountain gods and sea gods, offering wine and food in sacrifice. They are brave and ruthless in battle, and when they kill someone in war, they take the body to offer as a sacrifice to the spirits. Sometimes, they construct small shelters beneath thick trees, hang skulls from trees, and shoot arrows at them, or pile stones and insert flags as symbols of the spirits. The king's residence is piled high with skulls beneath the walls, which they believe is good. Every household must hang skulls and horns of animals on their doors.
In the first year of Daye, the first year of Emperor Yang of Sui's reign, the navy led by He Man, every spring and autumn, when the weather is clear and the sea is calm, gazes eastward into the distance, as if seeing mist, unsure of how far it extends. After three years, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Captain of the Feathered Riders Zhu Kuan to investigate these unfamiliar peoples, and He Man mentioned this to him, so they went together and arrived at the country of Liuqiu. Due to the language barrier, they captured an individual and brought him back.
In the second year of his reign, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Zhu Kuan to pacify them again. The people of Liuqiu refused to listen, so Zhu Kuan seized some of their cloth armor and returned. At that time, envoys from Japan arrived to pay their respects to Emperor Yang of Sui and saw the cloth armor, remarking, "This is what the people of Liuqiu use." Emperor Yang of Sui then dispatched Wu Benlang, Chen Leng, and the court official Zhang Zhenzhou to lead troops from Yian and set sail to attack Liuqiu. After reaching Gaohua Island, they traveled east for two days to Xidi Island, and then another day to Liuqiu. Initially, Chen Leng gathered soldiers from various southern states to join the expedition, including a Kunlun man who had a good understanding of the Liuqiu language. He sent them to persuade the people of Liuqiu, but they refused to listen and resisted the troops. Chen Leng defeated them, entered the capital of Liuqiu, and won numerous battles, set their palace ablaze, captured many men, women, and children alike, and returned with the spoils of victory. From that point on, all contact with Liuqiu was severed.
Japan, located to the southeast of Baekje and Silla, is approximately three thousand miles away by sea, nestled among mountains and islands in the vast ocean. During the Wei Dynasty, it already had trade relations with China. Japan is made up of over thirty states, each claiming its own king. The Japanese people are unsure of the exact size of their land, calculating distances instead by the number of days traveled. Their territory extends east to west for a journey of five months and north to south for three months, reaching the sea on both coasts. The landscape is elevated in the east and lower in the west. Their capital is located at Yamadu, referred to as Yamatai in the "Records of Wei." Ancient texts state that Japan is twelve thousand miles away from Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, to the east of Kuaiji, about the same distance as Dan'er. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han, Japan sent envoys to pay their respects, referring to themselves as nobles. During the reign of Emperor An of Han, Japan again sent envoys to present tributes and was referred to as Wona. During the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling of Han, Japan was in great chaos, as various tribes fought among themselves, leaving the country without a king for many years. Later, a woman named Himiko emerged, who used sorcery to enchant everyone, and thus the entire nation crowned her queen. She had a younger brother who helped her govern the country. The queen had over a thousand maidservants, and very few had seen her face; only two men were tasked with delivering meals and messages to her. The queen’s palace, pavilions, city walls, and fences were all under guard by soldiers, and the laws were strictly enforced. From the Wei Dynasty to the Qi and Liang Dynasties, Japan maintained contact with China. In the twentieth year of the Kaihuang era, or 590 AD, the king of Japan, Amami, who had the style name Tali Sibei Gu and was also known as Abai Jimi, sent envoys to pay their respects to the emperor. The emperor then directed relevant departments to investigate the customs and practices of Japan.
The messenger reported that the Japanese king considered the sky his elder brother and the sun his younger brother. He started handling government affairs before dawn, sitting cross-legged at work, and stopped working as soon as the sun rose, saying he would let his younger brother, the sun, take over. When Emperor Gaozu heard this, he exclaimed, "This is unreasonable!" He then ordered the Japanese king to change this habit. The Japanese king's wife was called Jimi, and there were six or seven hundred women in the harem! His son, who was the crown prince, was named Rigemidoveli. Japan did not have city walls at that time.
The palace officials were divided into twelve ranks: Great Virtue, Small Virtue, Great Benevolence, Small Benevolence, Great Righteousness, Small Righteousness, Great Propriety, Small Propriety, Great Wisdom, Small Wisdom, Great Trust, Small Trust, with no fixed number of people in each rank. They also had 120 military officials, equivalent to officials like village heads in China. Eighty households were under the jurisdiction of an Iniyi, similar to a modern village head. Ten Iniyis were under the jurisdiction of a military official.
Their clothing: men wore long-sleeved tunics, and shoes similar to straw sandals with lacquered uppers tied to their feet. Most commoners were barefoot and forbidden from using gold or silver for decoration. Their clothing was made from a single piece of fabric, connected front and back without stitching. They wore no hats, and their hair was loose on both sides of their ears. By the time of the Sui Dynasty, their kings began wearing hats made of brocade with gold and silver decorations. Women tied their hair behind their heads and wore long tunics with pleated skirts. They used bamboo combs, grass mats, animal skins for outerwear, and patterned leather for borders. They had bows and arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, and axes, wearing lacquered leather armor and using bone arrowheads. Despite their arsenal, they rarely engaged in battle. When the court held banquets, they always paraded and performed their traditional music. Japan likely had about a hundred thousand households.
There's a saying in this place that goes: murder, robbery, and adultery all get you killed! If you steal or commit minor offenses, it depends on what you stole. You might have to pay, and if you can't pay, you'll end up as a slave. For other crimes, it really depends—could be exile or a good old-fashioned beating.
During trials, if someone refuses to confess, they're in for some serious torture! They might press on your knees with wood or strangle you with a bowstring. And if that’s not bad enough, they might toss small stones into boiling water and make you fish them out! If you're found guilty, your hands will rot right away. They may also lock a snake in a jar and make you catch it, saying that if you're guilty, the snake will bite you! So, folks around there are pretty honest, rarely see the inside of a courtroom, and theft is pretty rare. They love listening to music from the five-stringed qin and flutes. Both men and women get tattoos on their arms and faces and go fishing. They don’t have a written language, so they carve on wood to record events or tie knots to keep count.
They deeply believe in Buddhism and brought Buddhist scriptures from Baekje, and that's how they picked up writing. They’re into divination and fortune-telling too, and have great faith in wizards. Every New Year's Day, they shoot arrows, drink, and have a blast, kind of like other festivals. They also enjoy playing chess and various board games. The climate in that place is warm, where trees don’t lose their leaves in winter, with fertile land and abundant water. They train cormorants to catch fish by placing a small ring around their necks, and can catch over a hundred fish a day! They skip plates and utensils, using leaves to hold their food and eating with their hands.
The people in this place are all very honest and well-mannered. There are more women than men, and people cannot marry if they share the same surname. As long as the man and woman are in love, they can get married. When a woman marries into her husband's family, she must first step over a dog before meeting her husband. The women there are not sexually loose and do not get jealous. When someone dies, they are placed in a coffin, and relatives and friends sing and dance next to the body, while the wife, children, and siblings all wear white to the funeral. Officials and nobles have to keep the body for three years, while common people choose a good day for burial. During the burial, the body is either placed on a boat, dragged along the ground, or transported in a small cart.
There is a mountain called Mount Asu in that place, where stones inexplicably ignite, with flames reaching the sky. The locals find it very extraordinary and often go there to pray and worship. They have a treasure known as the Ruyi Pearl, which is green, about the size of an egg, and glows at night; it's said to be the essence of fish eyes. Silla and Baekje both consider Japan a great country with many treasures, showing deep respect and regularly sending envoys.
In the year 607 AD, the King of Goryeo sent envoys to the Sui Dynasty as tribute. The envoys said, "We heard that the Heavenly Emperor of the West Sea (referring to Emperor Yang of Sui) is vigorously promoting Buddhism, so we came to pay respects and brought dozens of monks to learn the Buddhist teachings." The official letter from Goryeo included phrases such as "The Emperor of the East greets the Emperor of the West at sunrise and wishes the Emperor of the West well at sunset." Emperor Yang of Sui was displeased and told the Chief of Protocol, "These letters from the barbarians are quite disrespectful; don't let me see such letters again in the future!"
In the second year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent the envoy Pei Qing to visit the Wa kingdom (Japan). Pei Qing first passed through Baekje, arrived at Jukdo (竹岛, possibly present-day Jeju Island), saw the territory of Gaya to the south, and then passed through the Dosanma kingdom (modern-day southern Korean Peninsula). He then continued eastward, reaching a kingdom, then arrived at Juksi (竹斯国, possibly somewhere on the east coast of the Korean Peninsula), and further east arrived at the Qinwang kingdom (possibly somewhere on the east coast of the Korean Peninsula), where the people resembled those from the Central Plains, believed to be the Islands of Yi (modern-day Taiwan), but the exact location was not certain. Pei Qing passed through more than ten countries before reaching the shores of Wa. From Juksi eastward, these countries were all subject to Wa. The Wa king sent Xiao Deabei Tai to lead several hundred people in a grand procession, with drums and trumpets, to welcome Pei Qing. Ten days later, the Wa king sent Da Li Gedopi to lead more than two hundred cavalry to welcome Pei Qing on the outskirts.
Upon arriving at the capital of the Wa kingdom, the Wa king was delighted to meet Pei Qing and said, "I have heard of the great Sui Empire in the west, a land known for its etiquette, so I sent people to pay tribute. We barbarians live in remote places by the sea and do not understand etiquette, which is why we did not receive the ambassador sooner. Now I have specially cleaned the roads, adorned the halls, and await the ambassador, hoping to learn from the great culture of Sui." Pei Qing replied, "The emperor's grace extends throughout heaven and earth, his blessings spread across the four seas. Because the Wa king admires the culture of the great Sui, the emperor has sent me to convey his wishes." Afterwards, Pei Qing was given accommodations.
Later, Pei Qing sent someone to inform the Wa king, "The imperial order has been delivered, please depart for your country as soon as possible." So the Wa king hosted a feast for Pei Qing and had the envoy accompany Pei Qing to present local specialties. From that point on, Wa severed ties with the Sui Dynasty.
Historical records say: the vast valleys and rushing rivers each have their own characteristics, and the people living there have their own distinct customs, preferences, desires, and languages. The sages developed educational practices based on the circumstances of the times, enabling them to realize their aspirations and harmonize their customs and habits.
The Nine Yi live far from the Central Plains, yet they are gentle by nature, without a rough or violent culture. Although separated by vast mountains, rivers, and seas, they can be easily governed through cultural education. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, they sometimes came to pay homage to the emperor. When Ji Zi escaped to Korea and began implementing the "Eight Prohibitions," these prohibitions were straightforward and practical, making them easy to enforce for generations, and the impact of this education endured for over a thousand years, remaining unbroken.
Nowadays, the various countries in Liaodong have adopted crown-like styles in their attire, and some incorporate ritual vessels like zhu and dou into their meals and daily routines. They have a passion for classics, history, and literature, and students flock to the capital in an endless stream, even if some die far from home and cannot return. If it were not for the good customs left by the sages, how could they have achieved such progress? Thus, Confucius stated, "Speak with honesty and integrity, act with seriousness and respect, and even in barbaric lands, one can still be accepted." This is truly a famous saying! Their customs offer countless lessons, far surpassing mere tributes of arrows and bows.
Since Emperor Gaozu of Han unified the remaining areas of the Zhou Dynasty, benefits were felt across China. It was not until the Kaihuang era that the Sui Dynasty began to campaign against Liaodong, but due to unfavorable circumstances, the army did not achieve any results. After the two Sui emperors inherited the throne, their ambitions were boundless. They repeatedly attacked the Korean Peninsula and launched powerful crossbow bolts. The small countries, terrified of annihilation, dared to resist desperately like cornered beasts. The war continued without stopping, the realm descended into chaos, and ultimately resulted in collapse and ruin. Military texts state: "Nations that focus on virtuous governance will thrive, while those that pursue territorial expansion will meet their doom." However, the Liaodong region had long been excluded from administrative divisions. Those countries regularly paid tribute without interruption. The two Sui emperors grew proud and complacent as a result, believing that no one was their equal. They were unable to pacify them through civil governance, but instead easily resorted to the use of force. Relying on internal strength and wealth, they sought to expand their territory externally, inviting resentment through arrogance and provoking war through anger. Such a state has never endured throughout history. Therefore, how can we not take vigilance against foreign threats seriously?
It is said that the ancestors of Baekje came from the Goryeo Kingdom. The king of Goryeo had a palace maid who suddenly became pregnant. The king wanted to execute her, but the maid said, "Something that looked like an egg came to me, that's why I became pregnant." The king let her go. Later, the maid gave birth to a boy, whom the king threw into the toilet, but the child miraculously survived. People thought the child had divine power, so they raised him and named him Dongming.
When Dongming grew up, the king of Goryeo began to fear him. Dongming, afraid, fled to the area of flooding (around the Yalu River). The people of Buyeo rallied around him and declared him their leader. Among Dongming's descendants was a man named Qiutai, who was known for his benevolence and integrity. He established a country in the area of Buyeo. The Han Dynasty's Liaodong Prefect, Gongsun Du, granted the title of Duke of Daifang to him by marrying his daughter to him. Baekje gradually became powerful and became a strong country in the eastern territories. Initially, they frequently crossed the sea with a fleet of a hundred ships, which is how they came to be known as Baekje.
Baekje went through more than ten generations of kings, all of whom paid tribute to China. Historical records from that time are quite detailed. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, King Yu Chang of Baekje sent envoys to present various treasures. Emperor Wen of Sui granted Yu Chang the title of Shangkaifu, Duke of Daifang, and King of Baekje.
This country is said to span 450 miles from east to west and over 900 miles from north to south. It borders Silla to the south and Goryeo to the north. Its capital is called Jubalcheng.
There are a total of sixteen ranks in official positions, the highest being Zuo Ping, followed by Da Lue, En Lue, Na Lue, Yu Lue, and Jiang De. These officials wear purple belts. Below them are Shi De, who wears black belts; Gu De, who wears red belts; Li De, who wears green belts; officials below De wear yellow belts. Next are Wen Du, Wu Du, Zuo Jun, Zhen Wu, and Ke Yu, who wear white belts. Their hats are all the same, with only officials above Nai Lue having silver decorations on their hats. The position of Chang Shi is rotated every three years. The capital city is divided into five regions, each with five districts where common folk live. Each region has a regional governor and two assistants. Each region has ten counties, each with a county magistrate. The inhabitants of this country include people from Silla, Goryeo, Japan, and China. Their clothing resembles that of the Goryeo. Women do not wear makeup, and young girls wear single braids that hang down their backs. After marriage, they divide their hair into two sections and coil them on top of their heads. They enjoy horseback riding, archery, reading history books, managing political affairs, practicing medicine, divination, and fortune-telling. When they bow, they support themselves with both hands on the ground. The country has both monks and nuns, as well as many temples and pagodas. They play instruments like drums, horns, harps, zithers, flutes, and pipes, and enjoy games like pitch-pot, Go, chupu, spear-holding, and bead play. They follow the Yuanjia calendar from the Song Dynasty, with the Jian Yin month marking the start of the year.
The prominent surnames in this country are Sha, Yan, Dao, Xie, Zhen, Guo, Mu, and Miao. Their marriage customs are similar to those of the Central Plains of China, and their funeral customs are similar to those of Goryeo. They grow grains and also raise cattle, pigs, and chickens, but many of the foods they eat are not cooked over a fire. Due to the dampness of their fields, people tend to live in the mountains. They have a type of chestnut that is quite large. There are towns on each of the 15 islands to the southwest of the country. It is said that in the year the Sui Dynasty subdued the Chen Dynasty, a naval vessel drifted to the country of Moro in the East Sea, and later the ship miraculously returned, passing by Baekje. King Chang of Baekje treated the crew of this ship exceptionally well, even sending envoys to congratulate the Sui Dynasty on pacifying the Chen Dynasty. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty held King Chang of Baekje in high regard and issued an edict saying, "King Chang of Baekje heard that we had pacified the Chen Dynasty and even sent envoys to congratulate us. The journey is long and tough, and there could be damage to the people and ship in case of storms. King Chang of Baekje is sincere, and I already understand that. Although the journey is long, the sentiment is understood, so why send envoys every year? From now on, you don't need to come for tribute every year, and I won't send envoys either. Just keep that in mind!" The envoys left happily.
In the 18th year of the Kaihuang era, King Chang of Baekje sent his chief official, Wang Bian, to pay tribute. Just as the Sui Dynasty was planning to attack Goguryeo, Baekje also sent envoys to congratulate them and request to guide the way. The Emperor decreed, "In previous years, Goguryeo did not offer tribute and did not follow the proper vassal etiquette. That is why I sent troops to attack. The King and officials of Goguryeo were afraid and admitted their mistakes. I have already pardoned them; there is no need to fight anymore." The Emperor treated the envoys of Baekje kindly and then sent them back. Goguryeo learned of this and invaded Baekje's territory.
Later, King Chang of Baekje passed away, his son Yu Xuan succeeded him, and after Yu Xuan's death, his son Yu Zhang took over. In the third year of the Daye era, Yu Zhang sent an envoy Yan Wen to pay tribute. In the same year, he also sent an envoy Wang Xiaolin to pay tribute and requested the Sui Dynasty to join in attacking Goguryeo. Emperor Yang of Sui agreed and asked them to first investigate the situation of Goguryeo. However, Yu Zhang secretly conspired with Goguryeo while feigning to assess China's strength. In the seventh year of Daye, Emperor Yang personally led troops to attack Goguryeo, and Yu Zhang sent his minister Guo Zhimou to inquire about the timing of the attack. Emperor Yang was pleased and rewarded him generously, and also sent the official Xi Lu to Baekje to maintain good relations. The following year, the Sui army crossed the Liao River, and Yu Zhang also positioned his troops at the border, claiming to assist in the war while actually trying to curry favor with both sides. Soon after, Baekje and Silla frequently clashed. In the tenth year of Daye, Baekje sent envoys to pay tribute. Eventually, chaos broke out across the land, and Baekje's envoys ceased to come.
Legend has it that if you set out from the South Sea and head south for three months, you would reach the country of Moro, which stretches over a thousand li from north to south and several hundred li from east to west. The place is teeming with deer and is a vassal state of Baekje. A three-day journey west from Baekje takes you to the land of Mo.
Silla was located in the southeast of Goryeo, which corresponds to the territory of the Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandery, also referred to as Sila at that time. At that time, General Guan Qiu Jian defeated Goryeo, and the Goryeo people fled to Wozhu. Later, some people returned to their hometown, while the rest became Silla people. Therefore, the Silla people have a highly mixed heritage, with descendants of Han people, Goryeo people, Baekje people, as well as people from Wozhu, Bunei, and Hanhe. Their king was originally from Baekje, fleeing to Silla by sea and eventually becoming the king.
This lineage continued with King Jin Zhenping, in the 14th year of the Sui Dynasty's Kaihuang era, when he sent people to offer tribute to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui appointed King Jin Zhenping as the Duke of Lelang Commandery and the King of Silla. Previously, Silla was a vassal state of Baekje. Later, Baekje attacked Goryeo, and the Goryeo people could not bear the suffering of war, so they fled to Silla for refuge, which made Silla powerful. Later, Silla emulated Baekje and became a vassal state of Goguryeo.
Silla's official positions were divided into seventeen levels: the highest was called Yibagan (Prime Minister); followed by Yichigan, Yinggan, Pomigan, Daachigan, Achigan, Yijigan, Shadogan, Jifugan, Da Naimogan, Naimo, Da She, Xiao She, Jitu, Da Wu, Xiao Wu, and Zhaowei. In addition to these official positions, there were counties. Their writing and weapons bore similarities to those of China. Silla recruited strong men for the army, and there were specialized management institutions and soldiers for beacon towers, border guard posts, and patrols. Their customs, legal system, and their clothing styles were akin to those of Goryeo and Baekje.
Every year on the first day of the lunar new year, everyone visits each other to exchange New Year's greetings. The king hosts a banquet for his ministers and presents them with gifts. On this day, offerings are made to the gods of the sun and moon. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month, a banquet is held during which officials compete in archery, and winners are rewarded with horses and cloth. In times of major events, officials are gathered to discuss and make decisions together. They prefer to wear plain-colored clothing. Women braid their hair and decorate it with various colored silk threads and beads. Wedding ceremonies are simple, involving eating and drinking, with the level of extravagance varying according to personal preference. On the wedding night, the bride first pays her respects to her in-laws before greeting her husband. When someone passes away, they are placed in a coffin and buried, with a tombstone erected. The mourning period lasts a year for the king, parents, and wife.
Silla's land is fertile, which allows crops to be cultivated in both wet and dry fields. Resources such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and wildlife are similar to those in the Central Plains. Since the Sui Dynasty, Silla has been sending tribute every year. Despite conflicts with Baekje due to its rugged terrain, Baekje is unable to do much about it.
The Mohe people live north of Goryeo, with each village having its own chieftain and no unified leadership. There are seven tribes: the first is the Sumo tribe, bordering Goryeo and boasting several thousand elite soldiers who frequently conduct raids on Goryeo. The second is the Bokdu tribe, north of Sumo, with a force of seven thousand elite soldiers. The third is the Anchego tribe, northeast of Bokdu. The fourth is the Pungne tribe, east of Bokdu. The fifth is the Haesil tribe, east of Pungne. The sixth is the Heuksoo tribe, northwest of Anchego. The seventh is the Baeksan tribe, southeast of Sumo. The total military strength of these tribes is under thirty thousand, with the Heuksoo tribe noted for its formidable strength. East of Pungne, they use stone-tipped arrows akin to those used by the ancient Sushen tribe. They mostly live near mountains and rivers, led by a chief named Damofumanduo, who is considered one of the strongest among the Eastern tribes.
They have a place called Tutai Mountain, which the locals hold in great awe. Although there are bears, leopards, and wolves on the mountain, they never harm people, and the locals dare not harm them either. The terrain there is low-lying and damp, so they build earthen embankments, then dig holes to live in, with the entrance facing upwards and using ladders to enter and exit. They work the fields together, growing plenty of millet, wheat, and sorghum. The water there is salty, leaving salt crystals on tree bark. They primarily raise pigs as livestock. They chew rice to brew wine, which can intoxicate them. Women wear cloth clothes, while men wear pigskin and dogskin clothes. They wash their hands and faces with urine, which is the least hygienic practice among all the tribes.
Their customs are quite loose, and women are very jealous. If a woman's husband finds out she is having an affair and if someone informs her husband, he would kill her. Afterward, he often regrets it and will also kill the informant. Therefore, such adultery is never made public. They mainly make a living by hunting, using bows about three feet long and arrows around one foot two inches long. They often make poison in July and August, apply it to the arrowheads, and use it to hunt animals. Animals shot with poisoned arrows will die immediately.
Legend has it that during the early days of the Sui Dynasty, many countries sent envoys to pay tribute. When Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty received the envoys, he said to them, "I have heard that the people of your country are very brave. Now that you are here, I am very happy! I regard you as my own children, and you should respect me as you would your father!" The envoys replied, "Our country is remote and far away. We heard that your country has a wise and virtuous ruler, so we came to pay our respects. Now that we have received your grace and have the honor of seeing you in person, we are truly honored and delighted! We are honored to pledge our loyalty to you forever!"
Their country borders the Khitan, and they often raid each other. Later, when these envoys came to pay tribute, Emperor Wen of Sui warned them, saying, "I am compassionate towards the Khitan as well as you. You should each guard your own territory so you can live and work in peace. Why do you always attack each other? This is against my wishes!" The envoys hurriedly apologized. Emperor Wen of Sui then treated them well and hosted a banquet for them. The envoys and their followers danced, with many of the dance moves simulating battle scenes. Emperor Wen of Sui looked at his attendants and said, "There are actually people in this world who always think about fighting. It's truly unbelievable!" However, their country was far from the Sui Dynasty, with only Sumo and Baishan being relatively close.
Emperor Yang of Sui initially fought with Goguryeo, suffering consecutive defeats. A Goguryeo general named Dudi Jiji led his subordinates to surrender to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Yang of Sui appointed him as Right Minister of Rites, allowing him to live in Liucheng and interact with the people on the border. Dudi Jiji liked Chinese customs and requested permission to wear Han clothing. Emperor Yang of Sui was pleased and rewarded him with a lot of brocade and silk, treating him with great favor. Later, during Emperor Yang of Sui's campaign in Liaodong, Dudi Jiji went with his subordinates and contributed in every battle, receiving many rewards from Emperor Yang of Sui. During the thirteen years of Emperor Yang's reign, he went to Jiangdu to play, and later sent Dudi Jiji back to Liucheng.
On the way back to Liucheng, he encountered Li Mi's rebel army, and Li Mi sent troops to intercept him. They fought more than ten times before Dudi Jiji managed to escape. When he reached Gaoyang, he was captured by Wang Xuba. Shortly after, he managed to escape to the location of Luo Yi.
The Liouqiu Kingdom is located on an island, to the east of Jian'an County, a five-day journey by boat. The place is full of caves. The king's surname is Huansi, and his name is Keladou; the number of generations that have passed since its founding is unknown. The locals refer to the king as Kelao Yang, and the queen is called Duobatu. Their residence is known as Bolotandong, surrounded by three layers of fences, surrounded by flowing water, with walls made of branches and thorns. The king's house has sixteen rooms, all ornately carved with images of birds and beasts. There is a tree resembling an orange tree, but with very dense leaves and branches as thin as hair hanging down. There are four or five generals in the country, each in charge of different caves, each with a small king. Each cave also has a village, each led by a village chief who oversees local affairs. Both men and women tie their hair with white hemp cords, from the back of the head to the forehead. Men wear hats made of bird feathers, adorned with pearls, shells, and red feathers, each featuring a unique design. Women wear square-patterned white cloth hats. They wear clothes made of bark, various colors of hemp cloth, and animal fur, each with a different style. The clothes are also embellished with colorful wool threads and shells, producing a sound reminiscent of jingling jade, wearing earrings, bracelets, and necklaces with beads. They craft hats from rattan, adorned with feathers. They have weapons such as knives, spears, bows, arrows, swords, and axes. Iron is scarce there, with thin, small blades that are mostly reinforced with bone or horn. They weave armor with hemp; some also incorporate bear or leopard skins. The king rides in a wooden carriage shaped like a beast, carried by attendants on either side, with only a handful of followers. The small kings ride in wooden carriages carved into animal shapes.
The Liúqiú people enjoy attacking one another. They are all strong, can run and jump, are hard to kill, and have strong resistance to attacks. Each cave fights its own battles, without coming to each other's aid. When the two armies confront each other, brave soldiers rush to the front, shouting insults at each other, and then start shooting arrows. If they lose, the entire army retreats, sends a messenger to apologize, and then reconciles. They gather the bodies of the dead from the battlefield, eat them together, and then present their skulls to the king. The king bestows hats upon them and makes them captains. They do not have taxes and distribute responsibilities evenly. Punishments lack fixed standards and are determined on a case-by-case basis. Crimes are decided by the bird leader; those who do not comply are reported to the king, who consults with his subjects to make a decision. Prisons have no shackles, only ropes for binding. The death penalty is executed using an iron spike, about the thickness of chopsticks and over a foot in length, stabbing through the head to deliver death. Less severe offenses are punished by caning. They do not have a written language, but track time by observing the moon's phases and mark years by observing the growth and decay of plants.
Speaking of the people in this place, their eyes are deep-set, their noses are high, and they resemble the Hu people somewhat, but they are also quite smart. There are no distinctions between rulers and subjects, and they don’t observe any kneeling or bowing rituals. Fathers and sons can even share a bed. Men shave their beards and eyebrows clean and remove any body hair. Women tattoo their hands with designs often featuring insects or snakes. For marriage, they offer wine, food, and pearls as betrothal gifts, or if a man and woman are in love, they can directly become husband and wife. When a woman gives birth, she is required to eat the placenta, and after giving birth, she will heat her body over a fire, sweat it out, and recover in five days. They use wooden troughs to evaporate seawater and produce salt, use tree sap to make vinegar, and ferment rice and wheat to make wine, which is quite mild. They eat with their hands, and if they come across something good, they first offer it to their elders. At banquets, the person offering the toast must wait for the host to call their name before drinking; even when toasting the king, they must call the king's name. When drinking together, the atmosphere is reminiscent of that among the Turks, singing and dancing, with one person singing and everyone joining in; the songs tend to be quite sorrowful. When dancing, men will hold women's shoulders and dance together. When someone dies, as their breath fades, the body is brought to the courtyard, where friends and family mourn. The body is then washed, wrapped in cloth and then covered with reeds before being buried right there without a grave. Sons observe mourning for their fathers by refraining from meat for several months. In the south, the situation differs somewhat; when someone dies, the entire village gathers to consume the deceased’s body.
This place is full of bears, leopards, jackals, wolves, as well as many pigs and chickens, but there are no cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses. The land is fertile; they first set fire to the land and then irrigate it with water. They use a long stone implement for cultivation, about a foot long and a few inches wide, like a shovel. Here, rice, sorghum, millet, foxtail millet, hemp, and various beans, including red beans, kidney beans, and black beans, are produced in abundance. As for trees, maple trees, catalpa trees, camphor trees, pine trees, Chinese toon trees, Nanmu trees, cedar trees, tung trees, bamboo, vines, fruit trees, and medicinal herbs are similar to those found in areas south of the Yangtze River, with a climate and environment akin to Lingnan.
The locals worship mountain gods and sea gods, offering wine and food during their rituals. If there are deaths in battle, they also sacrifice the deceased to the spirits. Some construct small shelters beneath the thick trees, some hang skulls on trees and shoot arrows at them, while others pile up stones and insert flags, treating them as idols. The king's residence is piled with skulls at the base of the walls, as they believe this brings good fortune. Every household must hang the skulls or horns of animals on their doors.
In the first year of Daye, which is the first year of Emperor Yang of Sui's reign, the navy commander He Man and his men, every spring and autumn, when the weather is clear and the sea is calm, gaze far to the east, as if they see mist, without knowing how far away it is from us. After three years, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Captain Zhu Kuan of the Feathered Cavalry to explore the situation at sea, and He Man accompanied him, eventually reaching the land of Liuqiu. Due to the language barrier, they captured a person and brought him back.
In the second year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Zhu Kuan to pacify them again, but the people of Liuqiu refused to listen, so Zhu Kuan forcibly took some of their cloth armor back. At that time, envoys from Wa came to pay their respects and saw the armor, exclaiming, "Hey, this is what the people of Liuqiu wear!" Emperor Yang of Sui then sent Chen Leng and the court official Zhang Zhenzhou with troops to depart from Yian to cross the sea to attack Liuqiu. They first arrived at Gaohuayu, then traveled east for two days to Xiduoyu, and another day to Liuqiu. Among Chen Leng's troops were soldiers from various southern states, including a Kunlun person who spoke the Liuqiu language. They were sent to persuade surrender, but the people of Liuqiu refused to listen and fought with the soldiers. Chen Leng led the troops to drive them away, all the way to the capital of Liuqiu, where they fought several battles and won each one, burned their palace, captured numerous men, women, and children, and returned with numerous spoils of war. Since then, Liuqiu has severed ties with us.
The Wa Kingdom, located to the southeast of Baekje and Silla, is three thousand li away by water. It is nestled among mountains and islands in the vast sea. During the Wei Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom had already established trade relations with China. The Wa Kingdom consists of more than thirty small states, each claiming to be a kingdom. The people of the Wa Kingdom do not understand how to measure distances, so they calculate based on the number of days. It takes five months to travel from east to west and three months from north to south across their territory, all the way to the coast. The terrain is elevated in the east and lower in the west, with the capital in Xiemidai, which is referred to as Yematai in the Records of Wei. Ancient texts say that the Wa Kingdom is twelve thousand li from the Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, to the east of Kuaiji, similar in distance to Dan'er. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute, calling themselves "daifu." By the time of Emperor An of Han, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys again to pay tribute, and they were referred to as "Wano." During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling of Han, the Wa Kingdom was in chaos, with various small states warring against each other, lacking a legitimate ruler for many years. Later, a woman named Himiko emerged, who practiced sorcery to beguile the people, so they proclaimed her as their queen. She had a brother who helped her manage the country. Queen Himiko had thousands of attendants, and few were allowed to see her face; only two men were responsible for delivering her food and messages. The queen's palace, towers, walls, and fences were under strict military guard. From the Wei Dynasty to the Qi and Liang Dynasties, the Wa Kingdom maintained contact with China. In the twentieth year of the Kaihuang era, in the year 590 AD, the King of the Wa Kingdom, surnamed Ami, styled Doriesibei, and titled Abejimi, sent envoys to meet the Emperor. The Emperor ordered the relevant departments to investigate the customs of the Wa Kingdom.
The envoy reported that the Japanese king regarded the sky as his older brother and the sun as his younger brother. He would handle government affairs before dawn, sitting in a cross-legged position, and stop working when the sun rose, saying he would let his "younger brother" take over. The Emperor Gaozu heard this and said, "This is unreasonable!" So he ordered the Japanese king to change these statements. The Japanese king's wife, named Jimi, had six or seven hundred women in his harem! His son, Regimidorofuri, was the crown prince. At that time, Japan lacked city walls.
The palace officials were divided into twelve ranks: great virtue, small virtue, great benevolence, small benevolence, great righteousness, small righteousness, great propriety, small propriety, great wisdom, small wisdom, great trust, and small trust, with no set number of officials in each rank. They also had 120 military officials, equivalent to village heads in China. Every eighty households were overseen by an Iniyi, similar to a village head today. Ten Iniyi were under the command of one military official.
Japanese clothing, worn by both men and women, consisted of skirts and tops with narrow sleeves, and shoes resembling straw sandals that were lacquered and tied to their feet. Many commoners went barefoot. They were not allowed to use gold and silver for decoration. Their clothes were made from a single piece of fabric, seamlessly joined together without stitching. They did not wear hats, with their hair falling freely on either side of their ears. It was not until the Sui Dynasty that the kings began to wear brocade hats, decorated with openwork gold and silver carvings. Women tied their hair behind their heads, wore skirts and tops with pleats, and utilized bamboo combs, grass mats, animal skin mattresses, and leather trimmings adorned with patterns.
They had bows, arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, and axes, with armor made of lacquered leather and arrowheads made of bone. Despite having an army, they seldom engaged in warfare. When the king held court, they always had a ceremonial procession and performed their national music. Japan's population was estimated to be around one hundred thousand households.
Speaking of the customs of this place, if someone commits murder, robbery, or adultery, they face execution! Thieves are required to repay the value of what they stole, and if they can't pay, they risk becoming slaves. For other crimes, offenders may face exile or corporal punishment.
During trials, if someone refuses to confess, their knees will be crushed with wooden blocks or their necks will be strangled with a bowstring. There are even harsher methods, such as throwing small stones into boiling water and forcing the accused to fish them out—whoever is found guilty will have their hands burned; or putting snakes in a jar and making the accused catch them—whoever is found guilty will be bitten by the snake.
Therefore, the locals are generally honest and seldom get involved in lawsuits or theft. They enjoy listening to the music of the five-stringed lute and flute. Both men and women like to have tattoos on their arms and faces, and they love to fish. Without a written language, they used wood carving and knotted ropes to keep records.
Later on, they embraced Buddhism and obtained Buddhist scriptures from Baekje, marking the beginning of their written language. They practice divination and believe in wizards. Every New Year's Day, they shoot arrows, drink, and have fun, and their other festival customs are quite similar to those in China. They also enjoy playing chess, dice games, and board games like backgammon.
The climate there is warm, the vegetation is evergreen throughout the year, the land is fertile, and there's plenty of water, but the land is limited. They use small rings to tie around the necks of cormorants, enabling them to catch over a hundred fish daily! Since they do not have plates or utensils, they use tree leaves as plates and eat with their hands.
The people in this place are straightforward, and the culture is quite straightforward. There's a higher ratio of women to men, and marriage between people of the same surname is forbidden; as long as both parties are in agreement, they can marry. When the bride enters the groom's house, she must step over a dog before meeting her husband. The women here are modest and generally do not get jealous.
When a person dies, the deceased should be buried in a coffin. Relatives and friends sing and dance by the corpse, while the wife, children, and brothers wear white mourning attire. Officials and nobles must keep the body for three years before burying it, while common folk select an auspicious day for the burial. During the burial, the body is placed on a boat and then pulled to the burial site, or transported by a small cart.
There is a mountain called Mount Asu, where stones spontaneously ignite, with flames reaching the sky. The locals consider this phenomenon to be miraculous and often go there to pray and make offerings. They also have a kind of wish-fulfilling bead, greenish-blue in color and about the size of an egg, which glows at night and is said to be the essence of fish eyes.
Silla and Baekje both considered Wa (Japan) a great country, believing it to possess many treasures, and held it in high esteem, frequently sending envoys back and forth.
In the year 607 AD, the King of Goguryeo sent envoys to the Sui Dynasty. The envoys said, "We have heard that the Celestial Sovereign of the Western Sea (referring to Emperor Yang of Sui) vigorously promotes Buddhism, so we have come to pay our respects and have brought dozens of monks to study Buddhist teachings." The Goguryeo's official letter contained phrases like "From the land where the sun rises, the Celestial Sovereign sends greetings to the land where the sun sets, may the Celestial Sovereign be in good health." Emperor Yang of Sui was displeased upon reading it and told the Minister of Rites, "The letters from these foreign peoples contain impolite phrases; do not let me see such letters again."
In the second year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Pei Qing, a Palace Attendant, to visit Wa. Pei Qing first passed through Baekje, arrived at Jukdo, and saw the land of Gaya to the south (now Jeju Island). He then traveled through Dusama (now Kyushu, Japan), all of which are located in the sea. Continuing eastward, he arrived at the country of Iki, then at the country of Tsushima, and further east to the country of Qin (now Kyushu, Japan), where the people resembled those in the Central Plains. People considered it a foreign land, though they were not entirely certain. After traversing over ten countries, he finally reached the coast of Wa. From Tsushima eastward, these countries were all subordinate to Wa. The Wa king dispatched Xiao Deabei Tai to lead a contingent of several hundred people, set up a procession, and welcomed Pei Qing with gongs and drums. Ten days later, the Wa king sent Dalige Duopi to lead more than two hundred cavalry to meet him outside the city.
After arriving at the capital of Wa, the Wa king and Pei Qing were delighted to meet. The Wa king said, "I have heard of the great Sui in the west, a land of etiquette, so I sent people to pay tribute. We barbarians live in remote places by the sea and do not understand etiquette, so we delayed the time in the territory and did not meet immediately. Now we have specially cleaned the roads and decorated the buildings to welcome the ambassador, hoping to learn about the advanced culture of the great Sui." Pei Qing replied, "The emperor’s grace reaches across heaven and earth, and his blessings flow through the four seas. Because the Wa king admires the culture of the great Sui, that is why he sent me to promote education." Then, the Wa king arranged for Pei Qing to stay in the building.
Later, Pei Qing sent someone to inform the Wa king, "The imperial order has been conveyed; please depart for your country at your earliest convenience." So the Wa king hosted a banquet for Pei Qing and sent envoys to follow Pei Qing back to his country to offer local specialties as tribute. From then on, Wa severed ties with the Sui Dynasty.
The historian said: Different geographical environments, such as valleys and rivers, cultivate distinct customs and habits among their inhabitants, with different preferences and desires, and different languages. The sage develops educational policies based on the times and circumstances to fulfill their wishes and align their customs and habits with those of the Central Plains.
The lands inhabited by the Nine Yi are very far from the Central Plains, but they are inherently gentle and lack a rough or violent demeanor. Despite being separated by mountains and seas, they can be easily governed through education. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Nine Yi tribes would occasionally visit to pay their respects to the emperor. Only after Jizi fled to Korea were the "Eight Prohibitions" enforced. While these prohibitions were straightforward, they were thorough, easy to implement, and could be upheld over the long term. The impact of education has persisted for thousands of years and remains unbroken to this day.
Today, the various states in Liaodong are increasingly adopting ceremonial attire similar to that of the Central Plains, and some have begun using sacrificial vessels like the zun and dou from the Central Plains. They take pleasure in studying the classics and historical texts and have a deep appreciation for literature and history. Countless people travel to the capital to study, and even if some may die or get lost along the way, it does not deter others from coming. If not for the positive customs established by ancient sages, how could such circumstances have arisen? Thus, Confucius stated, "Speak with honesty and keep your promises, act with seriousness and respect, and you can travel even in barbarian lands." This is indeed a profound saying! The customs of the various states in Liaodong are worth emulating, far beyond merely offering tribute.
Starting from the territories ruled by Han Gaozu, which benefited the Central Plains, it wasn't until the end of the Kaihuang era that campaigns in Liaodong began. However, due to unfavorable conditions, the army failed to achieve any results. The two emperors of the Sui Dynasty were ambitious and aimed to rule the entire world, repeatedly sending troops to campaign in the Korean Peninsula and deploying a large number of forces. These small states, fearing extinction, fought fiercely like cornered beasts, resulting in ongoing wars and chaos, which ultimately led to the collapse of these small states and the ruin of their families. As the art of war states, "Countries that focus on virtuous governance will thrive, while those that pursue territorial expansion will ultimately face destruction." However, the Liaodong region has long remained outside the jurisdiction of counties. These states consistently paid tribute and offered their respects without interruption. The two Sui emperors grew proud and complacent, believing themselves to be invincible because of this, unable to use civil governance to win them over, they recklessly initiated wars instead. Relying on domestic strength while seeking to expand their territory abroad, their arrogant attitude invited resentment, leading them to wage war in anger. Such behavior has historically always led to destruction. Thus, we should take these lessons from the barbarians to heart!
Legend has it that the ancestors of Goguryeo originated from the Buyeo Kingdom. The king of Buyeo once obtained the daughter of the River God, imprisoned her in a chamber, and when sunlight shone on her, she became pregnant and laid a large egg. A boy named Jumong hatched from the egg. The officials of Buyeo believed that Jumong was not born of ordinary means and requested the king to kill him, but the king refused. When Jumong grew up, he went hunting with others and consistently brought back an abundance of game. The officials again requested the king to kill him. Jumong's mother told him about this, so Jumong fled Buyeo and ran southeast.
He reached the bank of a river that was too deep to cross. Jumong said, "I am the grandson of the River God and a child of the Sun. Now in danger with pursuers closing in on me, how can I cross?" In that moment, a miracle happened: fish and turtles came together to create a bridge, enabling Jumong to cross the river while the pursuers were left behind. Jumong later established a country and called it Goguryeo, adopting "Go" as his surname. After Jumong passed away, his son Yuri ascended to the throne. In the time of Jumong's grandson Mohe, he mustered an army and ultimately defeated the Buyeo Kingdom.
When Zhu Meng's great-grandson Wei Gong invaded Xi'an Ping during the Zhengshi era of the Wei Kingdom, he was defeated by Guanqiu Jian. Gong's great-great-grandson, Emperor Zhaolie, was later defeated by the Murong clan, and Goguryeo's capital city, Wandu, was burned down and looted before the Murong army withdrew. Emperor Zhaolie was later killed by Baekje. His great-grandson Lian sent envoys to pay tribute to the Later Wei dynasty. Lian's sixth-generation descendant Tang also sent envoys to pay tribute during the Zhou dynasty, and Emperor Wu of Zhou appointed him as Grand Marshal, Duke of Liaodong, and King of Liaodong. After the founding emperor took the throne, Tang sent envoys to the court to pay tribute and was appointed Grand General, later becoming the King of Goguryeo. Since then, Goguryeo has sent envoys to pay tribute to the court every year without fail.
Goguryeo spans two thousand li east to west and over a thousand li north to south. The capital is located in Pyongyang City, also known as Chang'an City, which measures six li from east to west, built along the mountain slopes, with its southern side bordering the Pujŏn River. In addition, there are the Inner City and Hanseong City, which are all part of the capital region, referred to as the "Three Capitals" by the Goguryeo people. They often clashed with Silla, constantly competing for territory.
Goguryeo's official ranks are divided into twelve tiers, which include Grand Elder Brother, Second Grand Elder Brother, Second Younger Brother, Second Dui Lu, Second Yi Houshe, Second Wu Zhuo, Second Grand Envoy, Second Envoy, Second Junior Envoy, Second Roushe, Second Yishu, and Second Xianren. In addition, there are internal and external evaluators, along with officials from the Five Departments. Commoners wore leather hats adorned with bird feathers. High-ranking officials wore purple hats embellished with gold and silver. Their attire included wide-sleeved shirts and wide-legged pants, with white leather belts and yellow leather shoes. Women wore skirts, jackets, and an additional garment resembling an apron called a tunic. Their weapons were akin to those used in China. They conducted hunting expeditions each spring and autumn, with the king participating personally.
The people's taxes consist of five pieces of cloth and five shis of grain per person. For the migrant population, taxes are paid every three years, with ten people sharing one piece of fine cloth. Tenants must pay one stone of grain, while middle-class families pay seven dou, and poor families pay five dou. Those who rebel will be tied to a pillar, burned alive, beheaded, and have their homes confiscated. Thieves must pay back ten times. Because punishments are severe, few people commit crimes. Their music includes instruments such as the five-stringed qin, zheng, bili, transverse flute, xiao, drums, etc., accompanied by reed pipes. At the beginning of each year, large entertainment activities are held by the river, with the king riding in a sedan chair, accompanied by a procession, to observe. After the activities, the king will throw his clothes into the water, divide everyone into two teams, and engage in water and stone throwing, shouting, and chasing games, repeating several times before ending.
Goguryeo people like to sit cross-legged, are clean, love to show themselves, and consider running around a sign of respect. They drag one leg while greeting elders, cross their hands in front of their chest when standing, and swing their arms when walking. They are cunning and suspicious. Fathers and sons bathe together in the river and sleep in the same room. Eloping among women is common, and there are many courtesans. When getting married, as long as the man and woman are in agreement, the man only needs to offer some pork and liquor, with no dowry required. Anyone who accepts a dowry is looked down upon. The deceased are kept in the house for three years before being buried on a lucky day.
When parents or husbands pass away, mourning must be observed for three years; for brothers, it is three months. Initially, there is mourning, but during the burial, there is music, dancing, and revelry. After burial, the deceased's clothing, belongings, vehicles, and horses are placed next to the grave, and attendees at the funeral will compete to take these items. They have a deep reverence for spirits and many lewd temples.
At the start of the Kaihuang era, envoys frequently came here to pay tribute. After the Chen dynasty was destroyed, Tang, a former official of the Chen dynasty, was terrified and hurriedly organized his troops, accumulated food, and prepared to resist the court's impending attack.
In the seventeenth year, the emperor granted Tang a letter, which read:
(Here pause, waiting for the original content to be supplemented in order to continue translating into modern Chinese colloquial language.)
I, the Heavenly Emperor, was appointed as the emperor to protect the people of the world and appointed you to govern this coastal region, hoping that you would promote the teachings of the court, so that everyone can live in peace and happiness, each in their rightful place. Although you come to pay tribute every year, claiming to be submissive to me, your sincerity falls short. Since you are my subjects, you should have the same virtues as I do, but you oppress the Mohe people and strictly prohibit the Khitan from having contact with me. Other vassals obediently pledge allegiance to me; only you—why do you hate those who are kind-hearted? Your intentions are downright malicious! Your country has many craftsmen; if you need anything, feel free to report it to the court.
In recent years, you have secretly hidden wealth, letting villains succeed, and secretly taking crossbowmen to other countries. Isn’t that secretly making weapons and plotting against me? Are you afraid of being exposed, so you steal things? I sent envoys to appease you, originally wanting to understand your situation and teach you some ways to govern the country. However, you locked the envoys in empty rooms, strictly guarded them, so they couldn't hear or see anything. What secret schemes are you hiding from everyone? Why do you still prohibit the government from investigating? You have repeatedly sent troops to attack border residents, played tricks repeatedly, spread evil rumors, and never truly regarded me.
I treat all my subjects as I would my own children, giving you land and titles, with my blessings spreading far and wide. Yet you are always distrustful and suspicious of me, often sending people to secretly gather information. How does this reflect the behavior of a loyal subject? Perhaps my teachings have been lacking, but I have already forgiven your misdeeds. From today onward, you must turn over a new leaf, follow the rituals of vassals, abide by the laws of the court, govern your own states well, and not provoke other nations. Only then can you prosper for a long time, which is also to my liking. Although your land is small and your people are few, under the heavens, you are all still my subjects. If I were to depose you, I cannot just turn a blind eye and must appoint officials to pacify the region.
If you truly repent and abide by the laws, you will be my loyal subjects. Do I really need to send someone to keep an eye on you again? Throughout history, emperors have ruled with benevolence and righteousness, rewarding the meritorious and punishing the guilty. If you have no faults, and I suddenly raise troops against you, how would the other vassals view me? You must humbly accept my words, have no doubts, and entertain no other thoughts. Previously, Chen Shubao rebelled in Jiangyin, harming the people and disturbing our borders, and plundering our border areas. I warned him many times, but he ignored my warnings, blinded by his arrogance. That's why I sent troops to eliminate this rebel. In less than a month, with just a few thousand troops, we quelled the rebellion once and for all, bringing peace to the world.
I hear you are saddened by this and are sighing. Rewards and punishments are the responsibility of the court. Punishing you is not to destroy you, rewarding you is not to protect you. Are you really fond of chaos? Do you think the width of the Liao River can compare to the Yangtze River? Can the population of Goryeo compare to that of Chen? If I were to stop tolerating you, investigate your faults, and send a general, how much effort do you think that would take? I'm just reminding you out of goodwill and urging you to turn things around. You should understand my intentions and work on building your own virtues.
Tang De was quite alarmed, so he quickly prepared to write a memorial to thank the emperor, but he died before he could finish writing it. His son Tang Yuan inherited the title. The emperor sent envoys to appoint Tang Yuan as the Chief of the Upper House and Yitong Sanqi, inheriting the title of Marquis of Liaodong County, and also bestowed upon him a set of clothes.
Tang Yuan quickly wrote a memorial to thank the emperor and also congratulated him on the auspicious omens he had received, then took the opportunity to request the emperor to grant him the title of king. The emperor readily granted Tang Yuan the title of king.
The following year, a man named Yuan led over ten thousand cavalry and the Mohe people in an attack on Western Liaoning. General Wei Chongji of Yingzhou defeated them. The emperor was enraged and immediately appointed Han Wang Liang as the marshal to lead the land and naval forces to subdue them, and issued an edict to demote Yuan. As a result, the supply lines fell short, the army had no food, and when they reached Linyu Pass, they encountered a plague, causing the army's fighting capability to plummet.
By the side of the Liao River, Yuan, now fearful, quickly sent a messenger to apologize and identified himself as "a humble servant of Liaodong, Yuan the whatever." The emperor, upon hearing this, withdrew the troops, treating him as before, and Yuan continued to pay tribute every year. Later, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ascended the throne, and during this period of peace and prosperity, both the King of Gaochang and the Turkic Khan came to pay tribute in person. At this time, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sought Yuan’s tribute once more.
Yuan was worried about making an etiquette mistake and felt very flustered. In the seventh year of the Daye era, the emperor sought to punish Yuan for his error. He personally led the troops across the Liao River, set up camp near Liaodong City, and deployed troops to launch an attack. All the troops set up camp and fortified their positions outside the city. The Goryeo army emerged to resist but suffered several defeats, so they all defended the city. The emperor ordered the siege of the city and specifically instructed the generals, saying, "If the Goryeo people surrender, they should be treated well, and soldiers were not to be allowed to plunder." As the city neared its fall, the enemy expressed a desire to surrender. The generals hesitated to act rashly and first sent a messenger to report. When the news came back, the enemy prepared for defense again and came out to resist. This occurred several times, yet the emperor remained perplexed. As a result, the army ran low on supplies, and the soldiers were utterly exhausted; logistics could not keep up, many armies were defeated, and they could only retreat. This campaign only succeeded in capturing a bandit named Wuli Luo on the west bank of the Liao River, established Liaodong County and Tongding Town before returning. Nine years later, the emperor personally led another campaign, this time granting the generals the autonomy to devise their own battle plans. The generals divided their forces to attack the city, and the enemy's strength diminished day by day. As a result, Yang Xuangan rebelled, and the rebel's letter arrived in the emperor's hands. The emperor, alarmed, immediately ordered a full retreat. Minister of War Husizheng fled to Goryeo, and upon learning the full story, Goryeo dispatched elite troops to pursue, resulting in heavy losses for the rear guard.
Ten years later, the emperor once again mobilized the national army, but was met with rampant banditry. The people fled, and the roads were blocked, causing many armies to miss their deadlines. By the Liao River, Goryeo was exhausted and sent envoys to surrender, even handing over Hosik to the Sui Dynasty as an act of atonement. The emperor agreed and stationed himself in Huaiyuan Town, accepted Goryeo's surrender and sent back the captives and troops. Upon returning to the capital, Goryeo's envoys reported to the ancestral temple but were detained by the emperor. The emperor ordered the Yuan to pay tribute, but they ultimately did not come. The emperor ordered the army to prepare for future campaigns, but chaos ensued, and they ultimately never marched again.
According to legend, the ancestors of Baekje originated from Goryeo. The king of Goryeo had a servant girl who suddenly became pregnant. The king wanted to kill her; however, the servant girl replied, "There was something that looked like an egg entrusted to me, which is why I became pregnant." The king spared her. Later, the servant girl gave birth to a boy, whom she threw into the toilet, but the child miraculously survived. People thought the child had divine powers, so they raised him and named him Dongming.
When Dongming grew up, the king of Goryeo grew fearful of him. Dongming, afraid, fled to Yan River (modern Yalu River). The Buyeo people hailed him as their leader. Among Dongming's descendants was a man named Qiutai, renowned for his benevolence and integrity. He founded a kingdom in the former Fang territory. The Han Dynasty's Liaodong Prefect Gongsun Du married his daughter to him. Baekje gradually grew stronger and emerged as a powerful kingdom in the eastern regions. Initially, they crossed the sea using hundreds of ships, which is how Baekje got its name.
Baekje went through more than ten generations of kings, all of whom paid tribute to China. These events were recorded in detail in historical books. During the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, King Yuchang of Baekje sent envoys to offer various tributes, and Emperor Wen of Sui granted him the title of Shangkaifu, Daifang Jun Gong, and King of Baekje.
It is said that this country is 450 miles long from east to west and over 900 miles long from north to south. It is bordered by Silla to the south and Goryeo to the north. Its capital is called Jubacheong.
There are a total of sixteen levels of officials, with the highest being the Left Minister, followed by Grand Commander, Benevolent Commander, Virtuous Commander, Assistant Commander, Commander Nai, and Commander Jiang. All these officials wear purple belts; below them are Shi De, who wear black belts; Gu De, who wear red belts; Li De, who wear green belts; officials below Li De wear yellow belts; then there are Wen Du, Wu Du, Zuo Jun, Zhen Wu, and Ke Yu, who wear white belts. Their hats are all the same style; only officials above Nai Shuai have silver flowers on their hats. The position of Changshi is rotated every three years.
The area surrounding the capital is divided into five districts, each of which contains five neighborhoods where the residents live. Each district is managed by a Fang Ling and his two deputies. Each district is divided into ten counties, each with a county magistrate. The population of this country is ethnically diverse, including Silla people, Goryeo people, Japanese people, and Chinese people. Their clothing resembles that of the Goryeo people. Women do not wear makeup, and young girls wear a single braid that hangs down their backs, which is divided into two braids after marriage and coiled on top of the head.
They enjoy horseback riding and archery, along with reading historical texts, managing political affairs, and practicing medicine, divination, and fortune-telling. When they bow, they support themselves with both hands on the ground. This country is home to both monks and nuns, along with numerous temples and pagodas. They play various musical instruments, including drums, horns, harps, zithers, flutes, and pipes, and enjoy games such as throwing pots, chess, backgammon, spear-holding, and playing with beads. They follow the Yuanjia calendar from the Song Dynasty, starting the year in the first month.
There are eight major surnames in this country, namely Sha, Yan, Dao, Xie, Zhen, Guo, Mu, and Miao. Their marriage customs are similar to those in the Central Plains, whereas their funeral customs resemble those of Goryeo. They grow grains, raise cattle, pigs, and chickens, but many of the foods they consume are eaten raw. Their fields are relatively wet, so most people live in the mountains. There is also a type of very large chestnut. Every mid-month of each season, the king offers sacrifices to the spirits of heaven, earth, and the Five Emperors. They also built a temple in the capital to worship their ancestors, and they conduct sacrifices four times a year.
To the southwest of the country, there are fifteen islands on the sea, all of which are inhabited and have cities. During the year when the Sui Dynasty pacified the Chen Dynasty, a warship drifted to the kingdom of Moro in the East China Sea. Later, the ship surprisingly returned on its own, passing through Baekje. King Chang of Baekje treated the crew of the ship very well and even sent envoys to congratulate the Sui Dynasty on pacifying the Chen Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui held King Chang of Baekje in high regard and issued a decree saying, "King Chang of Baekje heard that we have pacified the Chen Dynasty and specially sent envoys to congratulate us. The journey was long and arduous, and there could have been damage to people and ships in case of storms. I appreciate King Chang's goodwill, and although the journey is long, our intentions are as clear as if we were speaking face to face. There is no need to send envoys back and forth every year. From now on, you no longer need to send tribute every year, and I will no longer send envoys either. Just keep this in mind." After that, he let the envoys return happily.
In the 18th year of the Kaihuang reign, King Chang of Baekje sent his chief official Wang Bian Na to present tributes. Just as the Sui Dynasty was planning to attack Goguryeo, Baekje also sent envoys to congratulate and offer to serve as guides. The Emperor decreed, "In recent years, Goguryeo did not offer tributes and did not follow the proper vassal etiquette, so I sent troops to attack them. The King and officials of Goguryeo were frightened and confessed their wrongdoings. I have already pardoned them, so there is no need for war." The Emperor received the envoys from Baekje warmly and then sent them back. Goguryeo learned of this and began invading Baekje's borders.
Later, King Chang of Baekje died, and his son, Yu Xuan, succeeded him. After Yu Xuan's death, his son, Yu Zhang, took the throne. In the third year of the Daye reign of the Sui Dynasty, Yu Zhang sent an envoy, Yan Wen, to present tributes. In the same year, he sent another envoy, Wang Xiaolin, to present tributes and requested the Sui Dynasty to attack Goguryeo. Emperor Yang of Sui agreed, instructing them to first assess the situation in Goguryeo. However, Yu Zhang secretly conspired with Goguryeo, employing deceitful tactics to gather intelligence on China's military capabilities. In the seventh year of the Daye era, Emperor Yang personally led troops to attack Goguryeo, and Yu Zhang sent his official Guo Zhimou to inquire about the timing of the attack. Emperor Yang was pleased and rewarded him generously with gifts, and also sent the official Xilv to Baekje to establish friendly relations.
The following year, the Sui army successfully crossed the Liao River, and Yu Zhang also positioned his troops at the border, claiming to support the Sui army while actually playing both sides. Before long, Baekje and Silla were in conflict again, frequently clashing. In the tenth year of the Daye era, Baekje sent envoys to present tributes. Later, chaos erupted throughout the land, and Baekje's envoys never returned.
Regarding the South Sea, a three-month journey south leads to the country of Moro, which stretches over a thousand li from north to south and hundreds of li from east to west. It is rich in deer and serves as a vassal state of Baekje. "Baekje is three days' travel west to reach the country of Mo."
Silla was located in the southeast of Goryeo, which corresponds to the territory of the Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandery, sometimes referred to as Silo. Previously, the Wei general Muqiu Jian defeated the Goryeo people, and they fled to Waju. Later, some of them returned to their hometown, and those who stayed there became the people of Silla. Therefore, the bloodline of the people of Silla is very mixed, with descendants of Han, Goryeo, and Baekje, as well as people from Waju, Bunai, and Hanheuk. The king of Silla was originally from Baekje, fleeing to Silla by sea and later becoming king. During the reign of King Jin Jinping, in the 14th year of the Sui Dynasty's Kaihuang era, he sent envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Wen of Sui appointed him as Shangkaifu, Duke of Lelang Commandery, and King of Silla.
Initially, Silla was a vassal state of Baekje, but later Baekje attacked Goryeo, and the Goryeo people could no longer endure the hardships of war, so they fled to Silla one after another, which ultimately strengthened Silla. Later, Silla followed the example of Baekje and became a vassal state of Gaya.
Silla's official positions were categorized into seventeen ranks, with the highest rank being Yibagan, which was equivalent to that of a prime minister; followed by Yichigan, Yinggan, Pomigan, Daachigan, Achigan, Yijigan, Shadougan, Jifugan, Danaimogan, Naimo, Dashe, Xiaoshe, Jitu, Dauwu, Xiaowu, and Zhaowei. In addition to these ranks, there were also local counties. Their script and weaponry closely resembled those of China. Silla recruited strong young men for military service, and there were dedicated military units responsible for beacon towers, border outposts, and patrols. Their customs, legal systems, and attire were comparable to those of Goryeo and Baekje.
On the first day of the lunar new year, people visit one another to exchange New Year's wishes. The king hosts a banquet for his ministers, rewarding them with gifts. On this day, offerings are made to the deities of the sun and moon. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month, a banquet is held during which officials compete in archery, and those who win are rewarded with horses and textiles. During significant events, all officials are called together to discuss and make decisions. The Silla people prefer to wear simple clothing. Women style their hair in braids, adorned with colorful threads and beads. Wedding ceremonies are straightforward, centered around feasting and toasting, with the scale varying according to the family's means. On the wedding night, the bride first pays respects to her parents-in-law, then to her husband. When someone passes away, they are prepared for burial, and a tomb is constructed. The king, along with the parents and wife, observes a year of mourning. Silla's land is fertile, suitable for both wet and dry agriculture. The crops, fruits, vegetables, and wildlife are comparable to those found in China. Since the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, Silla has paid tribute annually. Silla's landscape is rugged, and despite their conflicts with Baekje, Baekje cannot do anything about it.
The Mohe inhabit the northern regions of Goryeo, with each village led by its own chief, lacking a unified leadership. There are a total of seven tribes: the first is the Sumo clan, bordering Goryeo, boasting several thousand elite warriors who frequently raid Goryeo. The second is the Bodeo tribe, north of Sumo, with seven thousand elite soldiers. The third is the Anchegu tribe, northeast of Bodeo. The fourth is the Pungnye tribe, east of Bodeo. The fifth is the Haosit tribe, east of Pungnye. The sixth is the Heishui tribe, northwest of Anchegu. The seventh is the Baishan tribe, southeast of Sumo. The total military strength of these tribes is under thirty thousand, but the Heishui tribe stands out as particularly formidable. East of Pungnye, they utilize stone-tipped arrows, similar to the ancient Sushen tribe. They mostly live in mountainous areas near water, and their leader, Damofuman, is regarded as a powerful figure among the eastern tribes.
They have a place called Taishan, and the locals deeply revere it. Although there are bears, leopards, and wolves on the mountain, they pose no threat to people, and in turn, people do not harm them. The terrain there is low-lying and moist, so they construct earthen embankments and live in dugouts with the entrances facing upwards, accessed by ladders. They cultivate the land together, primarily growing millet, wheat, and sorghum. The water there is salty, and salt will form on tree bark. They primarily raise pigs. They chew rice to brew wine, and it can intoxicate them. Women wear cloth clothes, and men wear pigskin and dogskin clothes. They wash their hands and faces with urine, and among all the barbarian tribes, they are regarded as the least hygienic. Their customs are quite licentious, and women are notably jealous. If a woman's husband discovers she is having an affair and if someone tells him, he will kill his wife, then regret it and kill the informant as well, so this kind of adultery will never be exposed.
They mainly rely on hunting for a living, using bows three feet long and arrows one foot two inches long. They usually make poison in July and August, apply it to arrowheads, and shoot birds and animals. Animals struck by poisoned arrows die instantly.
At the onset of the Kaihuang era, the leaders of those (Turkic) tribes sent envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Wen of Sui received the envoys and said to them, "I have heard that the people in your place are all brave and good at war. Now that you have come to see me, it truly meets my expectations. I regard you as my own children, so you should respect me as you would your father." The envoys replied, "We live in a remote place, and the journey is far. We have heard that your country has a wise and noble monarch, so we have come to pay our respects. Now that we have received your grace and seen your holy face, we are profoundly grateful and honored to become your subjects for all time."
Their country borders the Khitan in the northwest, and they often raid each other. Later, when these envoys came to pay their respects, Emperor Wen of Sui admonished them, saying, "I have compassion for both the Khitan and you, as you are not different. You should each defend your own territories, so you can all live and work in peace. Why do you always attack each other? This is contrary to my wishes!" The envoys quickly apologized. Emperor Wen of Sui then treated them well, permitting them to feast and drink in the palace. The envoys and their followers stood up and danced, most of their dance movements mimicking scenes of battle. Emperor Wen of Sui watched them and said to his attendants, "Is there really such a thing in the world? (referring to the dance) Always thinking about fighting, this is too much!" However, their homeland was quite distant from the Sui Dynasty, with only the Su Mo River and Baishan being relatively close.
When Emperor Yang of Sui first fought with Goguryeo, he suffered repeated defeats. The Goguryeo general Du Deji surrendered with his troops. Emperor Yang of Sui appointed him as the Right Guanglu Dafu, permitting him to reside in Liucheng and engage with the local populace. Du Deji liked Chinese customs and requested to wear Hanfu. Emperor Yang of Sui was very pleased and bestowed upon him considerable favor, rewarding him with a lot of silk and satin. During the Liaodong campaign, Du Deji led his subordinates to follow Emperor Yang of Sui on expeditions, achieving victories each time and receiving numerous rewards from the emperor. When Emperor Yang of Sui was in power for thirteen years, he once traveled to Jiangdu and later returned Du Deji to Liucheng. While returning to Liucheng, he encountered the rebellion led by Li Mi. Li Mi sent troops to intercept him, and after engaging in over ten battles, Du Deji barely managed to escape. When he reached Gaoyang, he was taken prisoner by Wang Xuba. Not long after, he managed to escape once more and sought refuge with Luo Yi.
Liuqiu is located on an island to the east of Jian'an County, a five-day boat ride away. It's a land filled with caves. The king, surnamed Huansi, is named Keladou, and how many generations have passed since their country was founded is unknown. Locals refer to the king as Kelao Yang and the queen as Duobatu. They live in a place called Bolotan Cave, encircled by three moats and fences, with a stream flowing outside, and fences crafted from branches and thorns. The king's residence is quite large, featuring sixteen rooms adorned with carvings of birds and beasts. The island is home to many trees resembling orange trees, with thick foliage and branches that droop like hair. The country has four or five generals, each responsible for different caves, and each cave has its own small king. Each cave also has a village, with a leader chosen from the most skilled warriors to oversee village matters. Both men and women wrap their hair in white hemp ropes, wrapping from the nape to the forehead. Men wear feathered hats decorated with beads, shells, and red plumes, each sporting a unique style. Women don square hats made from simple white fabric.
The clothes they wear are made of bark from trees resembling orange trees, hemp fabric in various colors, and animal fur, woven in a variety of styles. The clothes are also decorated with hanging feathers and shells of various colors, as well as some hanging shells, producing sounds like jade, adorned with earrings, bracelets, and hanging beads around their necks. They weave hats from rattan, decorated with feathers on top. They have weapons such as knives, spears, bows, arrows, swords, and halberds. Iron is scarce in the region, and knives and swords are thin and lightweight, mostly reinforced with bone and horn. They weave armor with hemp, some also using bear and leopard skins. The king sits in a beast-shaped wooden carriage, carried by people on the left and right, followed by only a few dozen people. The young king rides in a wooden carriage carved to resemble a beast.
The people of Liuqiu enjoy fighting among themselves, each one strong, fast, hard to kill, and highly resilient. Each mountain cave fights independently, without mutual rescue. When the two armies face each other, three to five brave men rush to the front, shouting and jumping, cursing each other, and then start shooting arrows at each other. If they lose, the whole army will run away, send someone to apologize and then reconcile. The dead are gathered and consumed together, then their skulls are presented to the king. The king will reward them with hats and make them captains. They do not impose taxes and share responsibilities equally. Their punishments lack fixed standards and are determined on the spot. Crimes are judged by the bird leader; if there is a disagreement, they report it to the king, and the king lets the ministers decide together. The prison lacks shackles, using only ropes instead. The death penalty is carried out with an iron awl, as thick as chopsticks, more than a foot long, stabbing through the top of the head to deliver death. Minor offenses are punished with caning. They have no writing, relying on the phases of the moon to track the seasons and observing the growth and decay of plants to keep track of the years.
It is said that the people in this place have sunken eyes, high noses, and resemble the Hu people somewhat, but they are also quite intelligent. They do not have hierarchical norms of respect, nor do they practice kneeling rituals. Fathers and sons may even share a bed. Men shave their beards and eyebrows, and remove all body hair. Women tattoo their hands, typically with designs of insects and snakes. When getting married, they offer wine, food, and pearls as betrothal gifts, or if a man and woman are in love, they become husband and wife. After childbirth, women are required to consume the placenta, heat their bodies over a fire, sweat it out, and fully recover within five days. They use wooden troughs to evaporate seawater to produce salt, tree sap to make vinegar, and ferment rice and wheat into wine, although the wine has a rather mild flavor. They eat with their hands, and when they encounter something good, they always present it to their elders first. During banquets, the person serving the wine must wait for the host to call their name before pouring, even when toasting the king, they must call the king's name. When drinking together, much like the Turks, they sing and dance while stomping their feet. One person sings while everyone else joins in, resulting in a melancholic atmosphere. When someone is nearing death, the body is carried to the courtyard, where relatives and friends gather to mourn. The body is then washed, wrapped in cloth, and then covered with reeds before being buried on the spot without a grave marker. Sons observe mourning for their fathers by refraining from meat for several months. In the south, the customs differ slightly - when someone dies, the villagers will collectively consume the deceased's body.
There are many bears, bears, jackals, and wolves in this place, as well as many pigs and chickens, but there are no cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses. This land is fertile, and before cultivation, it is burned with fire and then irrigated with water. They use a long wooden plow with a stone blade attached to the end to plow the land, which is about one foot long and a few inches wide. This area produces rice, sorghum, foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, hemp, beans, as well as adzuki beans, mung beans, black beans, and more. There are maple trees, catalpa trees, camphor trees, pine trees, parasol trees, Nanmu trees, cedar trees, bamboo, vines, various fruit trees, and medicinal herbs, similar to the areas south of the Yangtze River in terms of climate and customs.
The locals worship mountain gods and sea gods, offering wine and food during sacrifices. After killing in battles, they also sacrifice the slain to the spirits. Some people build small houses in dense forests, some hang skulls on trees and shoot arrows at them, and some pile up stones with flags, treating them as idols for worship. The king's residence is filled with skulls at the base of the walls, which they consider a good thing. Every household is required to hang the skulls and horns of animals on their doors.
In the first year of the Daye era of the Sui Dynasty, Commander He Man and his crew, during the clear and calm weather of spring and autumn, would look eastward as if they saw mist on the horizon, not knowing how far away it was. After three years, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Captain Zhu Kuan of the Feathered Cavalry to sail out to find these exotic people. He Man mentioned this, and they went together, eventually arriving at the country of Liuqiu. Because of the language barrier, they captured someone and brought him back.
In the second year, the emperor again sent Zhu Kuan to pacify them. Since the Liuchiu kingdom refused, Zhu Kuan seized some of their cloth armor and returned. Meanwhile, envoys from Japan arrived to pay tribute, and when they saw the cloth armor, they said, "These are things used by the people of Liuchiu." So the emperor dispatched the military commander Chen Leng and the court official Zhang Zhenzhou to lead troops from Yian, sailing to attack Liuchiu. Upon reaching Gaohua Island, they traveled east for two days to reach Xibiyu Island, and after another day they arrived at Liuchiu. Initially, Chen Leng brought soldiers from various southern states to join the fight. Among them, there were Kunlun people who were more proficient in the Liuchiu language, so they were sent to persuade them. However, Liuchiu refused to comply and resisted the imperial forces. Chen Leng defeated them, entered the capital of Liuchiu, won numerous battles, burned their palace, captured thousands of men and women, and returned with the spoils. From that point on, Liuchiu severed ties with the Sui Dynasty.
The Wa Kingdom is located to the southeast of Baekje and Silla, approximately three thousand miles by sea, nestled among mountains and islands in the vast ocean. During the Wei Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom and China were already able to communicate with each other. The Wa Kingdom consists of more than thirty countries, each of which claims to have its own king. The people of the Wa Kingdom do not measure distances precisely; they calculate travel time in days. Their territory extends east to west for a journey of five months and north to south for three months, reaching the coast. The terrain is elevated in the east and lower in the west. Their capital is located at Yamadai, referred to as Yamatai in the "Records of Wei." Ancient texts state that the Wa Kingdom is twelve thousand miles away from Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, to the east of Kuaiji, and almost as far as Dan'er. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute, referring to themselves as nobles. During the reign of Emperor An of Han, the Wa Kingdom again sent envoys to pay tribute, referring to themselves as the Wa Slave Kingdom. During the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling of Han, the Wa Kingdom experienced significant turmoil, with internal conflicts and no king for many years. Later, there was a woman named Himiko, who could enchant the people through her shamanistic powers, so the entire nation recognized her as queen. She had a brother who helped her govern the country. This queen had over a thousand attendants, and very few had ever seen her face; only two men were tasked with delivering her food and messages. The queen's palace, pavilions, city walls, and fences were all guarded by soldiers, and the laws were strictly enforced. From the Wei Dynasty to the Qi Dynasty and the Liang Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom maintained contact with China. In the twentieth year of the Kaihuang era, which is in the year 590 AD, the king of Japan, surnamed Amo, whose personal name was Tali Sibei and title was A Beiji Mi, sent envoys to meet the emperor. The emperor directed the relevant departments to investigate the customs of Japan.
The envoy reported that the Wokou king considered the sky as his elder brother and the sun as his younger brother. He would sit cross-legged and handle state affairs before sunrise, and as soon as the sun rose, he would stop working, saying he would "hand over state affairs to my younger brother." Emperor Gaozu immediately said, "This is unreasonable!" and ordered the Wokou king to change this habit. The Wokou king's wife was named Jima, and he had six to seven hundred women in his harem. The Wokou crown prince was named Ige Midofuri. At that time, Japan did not have city walls or fortifications. Their official ranks were divided into twelve levels: the first rank was called Dade, the second Xiaode, and so forth, including Darenn, Xiaoren, Dayi, Xiaoyi, Dali, Xiaoli, Dazhi, Xiaozhi, Daxin, and Xiaxin, with the number of people in each rank varying. They also had officials similar to Chinese village heads, called Junni, numbering 120. Eighty households were overseen by an Iniyi, equivalent to a present-day village head. Ten Iniyi were under the jurisdiction of a Junni. Japanese men wore long shirts with short sleeves, shoes similar to Chinese straw sandals with colored lacquered uppers tied to their feet. Most commoners went barefoot and were forbidden from using gold or silver for decoration. Their clothing was made of horizontally cut fabric without seams. They did not wear hats, and their hair was left loose beside their ears. Their kings only began wearing hats made of brocade adorned with gold and silver filigree during the Sui Dynasty. Women tied their hair behind their heads, wore long shirts with short sleeves, and pleated skirts. They used bamboo combs, grass mats, and animal skin coats edged with patterned leather. Their weapons included bows, arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, axes, and armor made of lacquered leather with bone arrowheads. Despite having an army, they seldom engaged in warfare. During royal gatherings, they always had a ceremonial procession and performed their traditional music. The population of Japan was approximately one hundred thousand households.
Speaking of the customs of this place, if someone commits murder, robbery, or adultery, it can cost you your life! Thieves have to pay back the value of what they stole, and if they can't pay, they end up as slaves. For lesser offenses, they might be exiled or get a good beating.
During interrogations, if someone won't confess, they might have their knees crushed with wood or a large bowstring tightened around their necks. More severe methods include throwing small stones into boiling water and making the parties fish them out—whoever burns their hand is the one at fault; or putting a snake in a jar and making the parties catch it—whoever gets bitten is guilty.
Therefore, the people there are pretty honest, rarely go to court, and theft is pretty rare. They love playing instruments like the five-stringed qin and flute. Everyone, young and old, loves to get tattoos on their arms and faces, go fishing, and keep records by carving notches in wood and tying knots.
Eventually, they embraced Buddhism and got their scriptures from Baekje, which helped them develop a written language. They also practiced divination and had a strong belief in shamans. Every New Year's Day, they shoot arrows, drink up, and have a good time, and their other customs are pretty similar to ours. They also enjoy playing chess, dice games, and chupu.
The weather there is warm, with lush greenery, fertile land, and abundant water. They use little rings to loop around cormorants' necks to help catch fish, with each bird catching more than a hundred fish daily! They don’t use plates or utensils; they just eat off tree leaves with their hands.
The people there are pretty straightforward and have a refined taste. There are more women than men, and you can't marry someone with the same last name. As long as a guy and a girl like each other, they can tie the knot. When a woman gets married, she has to step over a dog before she can see her husband. The women there aren't promiscuous or jealous at all.
When a person dies, the deceased is buried in a coffin, and relatives and friends sing and dance next to the body. The spouse, children, and siblings wear white mourning attire. Nobles and officials must keep the body for three years before burial, while commoners choose an auspicious date for burial. During the burial, the body is placed on a boat and pulled along the land, or transported by a small cart.
There is a mountain called Mount Asu in that place, where stones inexplicably catch fire, with flames soaring into the sky. The locals find this phenomenon miraculous and hold ritual ceremonies. There is also a type of wish-fulfilling gem, blue in color and the size of an egg, that glows at night. It is said to be the essence of a fish's eye.
Silla and Baekje both regarded Wa (Japan) as a powerful nation, believing that it possessed many treasures, and they greatly respected Wa, often sending envoys back and forth.
In the year 607 AD, the King of Goryeo sent envoys to the Sui Dynasty. The envoys said, "We heard that the Bodhisattva Emperor of the Western Sea (referring to Emperor Yang of Sui) vigorously promotes Buddhism, so we specially sent me to pay respects and brought dozens of monks to learn Buddhism." The Goryeo's official letter read, "The Emperor of the East sends a letter to the Emperor of the West at sunrise, wishing the Emperor of the West well at sunset, and so forth." Emperor Yang of Sui was quite displeased after reading it and told his Minister of Rites, "If there are any disrespectful parts in the letters from the barbarians, do not let me know about them again."
The following year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent the Scholar of the Imperial Library, Pei Qing, to Wa (Japan). Pei Qing first passed through Baekje, arrived at Jukdo Island, saw the country of Goguryeo to the south, and then passed through Doshma Country, all of which were in the middle of the sea. Continuing east, he arrived at Iki Country, then at Tsushima Country, and further east to the Kingdom of Qin, where the people were similar to those from the Central Plains. They were considered a barbarous land, but its status was still uncertain. He passed through more than ten countries before reaching the coast of Wa. From Tsushima Country to the east, these countries were all subject to Wa. The Wa King sent Xiao Deabi Tai to lead a contingent of hundreds, with ceremonial guards, to welcome Pei Qing. Ten days later, the Wa King sent Da Li Gedopi to lead more than two hundred cavalry to welcome Pei Qing on the outskirts.
After arriving in the capital of Japan, the Japanese king was very pleased to meet Pei Qing. He said, "I have heard that in the west, there is a great Sui Dynasty, known for its etiquette, which is why we sent people to pay tribute. We, the so-called 'barbarians,' live in remote coastal areas and do not understand etiquette, so we delayed in receiving the envoys right away. Now I have specially cleaned the roads and decorated the buildings to welcome the ambassador, hoping to learn from your country's advanced culture." Pei Qing replied, "The emperor's virtue extends throughout the universe, and his grace reaches across the seas. Because the king admires the culture of the great Sui Dynasty, he sent me here to promote education." Then the Japanese king arranged for Pei Qing to stay in the building.
Later, Pei Qing sent someone to inform the Japanese king, "The court's decree has been conveyed; please arrange for the envoys to return home as soon as possible." So, the Japanese king held a banquet for Pei Qing and sent envoys to follow him to present tribute items. From then on, the exchanges between Japan and the Sui Dynasty came to an end.
Historical records say: the valleys and rivers each have their own unique geographical environments, and the people living there possess diverse customs, preferences, desires, and languages. The sages formulated educational policies based on the situation at the time, so that they could fulfill their wishes and align their customs and habits with those of the Central Plains. The places where the nine barbarians live are very far from the Central Plains, but they are naturally kind and gentle, without a violent and cruel atmosphere. Although separated by distant mountains, rivers, and seas, it is very easy to govern them through education. During the Xia and Yin Dynasties, they sometimes came to pay homage to the emperor. It was not until Ji Zi fled to Korea that the "Eight Prohibitions" were implemented, which were concise and easy to implement, and could be carried out for a long time. The impact of education endured for thousands of years.
Now in various countries in Liaodong, some wear attire and headwear similar to those of the Central Plains, and some have dining utensils like those of the Central Plains. They enjoy studying classics and historical texts, and those who come to the capital to study are numerous; even if some die far from home, they cannot return. If it weren't for the virtuous traditions established by ancient sages, how could such a situation exist? Therefore, Confucius said, "Speak with loyalty and integrity, act with respect and caution, even in the land of barbarians." This is truly a profound truth! Their customs and habits worth learning from, is it just about offering crude arrows as tribute?
Since Emperor Gaozu of Han unified the remaining areas of the Zhou Dynasty, the blessings spread throughout the land. By the end of the Kaihuang period, the campaign to conquer Liaodong began, but the timing was not on their side, and the army did not achieve any results. The two Sui emperors were ambitious and sought to conquer the world, launching multiple military campaigns against the Korean Peninsula and launching powerful crossbow bolts several times. Those small countries feared extinction and fought back desperately like cornered beasts; the wars continued without end, plunging the world into chaos, ultimately resulting in their collapse and annihilation. The art of war says, "Countries that focus on developing morality prosper, countries that focus on expanding territory perish." However, the Liaodong region has long remained outside the jurisdiction of counties. Those countries pay tribute on time every year without interruption. The two Sui emperors grew proud and complacent as a result, thinking that no one in the world was more powerful than themselves, unable to pacify them through civil governance, but instead easily resorting to the use of force. Domestically, they relied on their strength and wealth, and externally they wanted to expand their territory, inviting resentment through pride and provoking war through anger. No country has ever survived under such circumstances in history. Therefore, shouldn't we take a hard look at the lessons learned from the barbarians?
Zhao Yuankai's wife is the daughter of the Cui family from Qinghe. Her father, Cui Li, is mentioned in "Literary Biography." Their family has always upheld strict traditions, and all their children follow the rules and etiquette. Yuankai's father is a minister, wealthy and influential, highly valuing social status, so he married her with lavish gifts. Yuankai holds great respect for his wife; even in private banquets, he behaves properly, in accordance with proper etiquette.
Later, Yuankai was ordered to go to Hebei, preparing to return to Chang'an. When he reached Fukou, he encountered bandits who attacked him. Yuankai barely escaped with his life. However, Cui was captured by the bandits, who intended to take her as their wife. Cui said to the bandits, "I am the daughter of a scholar-official, the wife of a minister's son. Even if I end up in this situation today, I can end my own life. It is absolutely impossible for me to be your wife!" The bandits tore her clothes and bound her naked to the bed, preparing to violate her. Fearing humiliation, Cui lied to them, saying, "I am too weak now; do as you please; I won't resist. Please untie my ropes first." The bandits quickly untied her. Cui took the opportunity to put on her clothes, seized a bandit's dagger, stood by a tree and said, "If you want to kill me, come at me with your blades. If you want me dead, come on!" The bandits, furious, fired arrows at her. Later, Yuankai found his wife's murderers, dismembered them, and used their remains to honor Cui's memory.
The history books say: when people commend women's virtues, most often emphasize gentleness and obedience as the foremost qualities. This represents a merely mediocre standard, falling short of the ideal. Regarding those who are visionary, resolute, unwavering in their convictions, and who act solely for justice, when examining historical records, one can find them in every era! Princess Lanling's integrity stands tall like a frost-covered pine, Princess Nanyang's determination is as unyielding as stone, the loyalty and resilience of washerwomen and devoted daughters, the sincerity of mothers such as the Cui and Feng families, are sufficient to make the brave and righteous feel ashamed and the noble feel inadequate. The wives of Princess Xiangcheng, Princess Huayang, Pei Lun, and Yuan Kai have all encountered hardships and setbacks, and when things didn’t go as expected, yet they willingly shared their struggles with their husbands, enduring without faltering. Their resolve is as resilient as frost, and their actions and words are as bright and righteous as the sun. Even the oaths of Gong Jiang found in the Book of Songs, and the record of Bo Ji's loyalty and martyrdom in the Zuo Zhuan, pale in comparison to theirs!
Pei Lun's wife was from the Liu family of Hedong, who had received a good education and was very cultured. Towards the end of the Daye era, Pei Lun became the magistrate of Weiyuan County. When Xue Ju rebelled and the county was attacked by bandits, Pei Lun was unfortunately killed. At that time, Liu was forty years old with two daughters and a daughter-in-law; all three women were beautiful. Liu said to them, "We are facing war and your father has died. I feel I cannot protect you adequately. Our family has always valued reputation and cannot allow those bandits to insult us. I plan to die together with you. What do you think?" Her daughters and daughter-in-law cried and said, "We will follow your arrangement." So Liu jumped into a well to commit suicide, and her daughters and daughter-in-law followed suit, all dying in the well.
Zhao Yuankai's wife was the daughter of Cui from Qinghe. Her father, Cui Hou, was mentioned in the "Biographies of Literature." Their family had a strong tradition of good conduct, and all their children followed the rules. Zhao Yuankai's father was a minister, and their family was wealthy, greatly valuing social status, so he married Cui with lavish gifts. Zhao Yuankai respected Cui very much; even during private banquets, he behaved properly and followed etiquette in his speech, behavior, and attire. During the chaos in the country, Zhao Yuankai followed the court to Hebei, preparing to return to Chang'an. When they reached Fukou, they were robbed by bandits, and Zhao Yuankai barely saved his life. However, Cui was captured by the bandits, who wanted to force her into marriage. Cui said to the bandits, "I am the daughter of a scholar-official and the wife of a minister's son. Today, my family is ruined and people are dead; of course, I can die immediately. Become your wife? That's absolutely out of the question!"
Those thieves tore her clothes, leaving her completely exposed, tied her to the bed, and attempted to rape her. Cui was afraid of being humiliated, so she lied to them, saying, "I have no strength to resist now; I will obey your arrangements, and I won't dare disobey you; please untie my ropes first." The thieves quickly let her go. Cui quickly dressed, grabbed the knife from one of the thieves, stood by a tree, and said, "If you want to kill me, then go ahead and use your swords! If you want me to die, come and force me!" The thieves were furious and killed her with arrows. Later, Zhao Yuankai found the killers of his wife, dismembered them, and used their remains as offerings for Cui's spirit.
The historian said: Ah, when discussing women's virtues, they always prioritize gentleness and obedience; this only represents a moderate level, not yet reaching the ideal! If we talk about women with foresight, determination, noble character, unaffected by external forces, acting only on justice, which era has been without them? Like Princess Lanling, noble as a solitary pine, Princess Nanyang, with a will as firm as a rock, as well as the loyal and brave Xi Shi old woman and filial daughter, Cui and Feng, two mothers as sincere and earnest, all can make those brave heroes feel inferior, and those with noble character also admire them.
Princess Xiangcheng, Lady Huayang, the wives of Pei Lun and Yuan Kai, they have all experienced hardships and difficulties, encountered unfavorable situations, yet willingly shared the hardships with their husbands, remaining steadfast in will, as pure as frost, as bright and upright as the sun. Even the oaths of Gong Jiang in the Book of Songs and Bo Ji's loyalty and sacrifice recorded in the Zuo Zhuan pale in comparison to these women.
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