Speaking of the southern and southwestern barbarians, most of them reside in the southern and southwestern regions of Jiaozhou, on islands located in the sea. The distances between them vary; some are several thousand miles apart, while others are even two to three thousand miles away. The exact travel distance by boat is uncertain. Although these foreign barbarians claim distances in miles, their measurements are not reliable.
Among the southern barbarians is the Linyi Kingdom. In the second year of Emperor Gaozu's Yongchu era, the King of Linyi, Fanyang Mai, sent envoys to pay tribute, and the emperor even granted him official titles. During the reign of Emperor Taizu in the Yuanjia era, the Linyi Kingdom began to threaten our territories of Jinan and Jiude. At that time, the governor of Jiaozhou, Du Hongwen, prepared to attack, but later learned of changes in Linyi, prompting him to halt his plans. In the seventh year of Yuanjia, Fanyang Mai sent envoys again, claiming that their relationship with Jiaozhou had soured and requesting forgiveness from the emperor. However, in the eighth year, he sent over a hundred warships to plunder Jiude and even invaded Sihui Port. At that time, the governor of Jiaozhou, Ruan Mizhi, sent three thousand men led by the team leader Xiang Daosheng to attack, but they were unsuccessful in capturing the city of Su, so they had to retreat. Linyi wanted to attack Jiaozhou and even asked the King of Funan for troops, but the King of Funan refused. In the tenth year of Yuanjia, Fanyang Mai sent envoys again to pay tribute and requested to be appointed as the governor of Jiaozhou, but the emperor stated that the journey was too far and declined the request. From the twelfth year to the eighteenth year of Yuanjia, the Linyi Kingdom sent tribute sporadically, yet the looting continued, and the quality of the tributes diminished over time.
It is said that the Emperor was quite unhappy with Yang Mai's arrogance, so in the 23rd year of his reign, he sent General Long Xiang and Tan Hezhi, the Governor of Jiaozhou, to attack him. He also ordered General Zong Que of the Grand Commandant's Office to supervise Tan Hezhi. Tan Hezhi sent his subordinate, Xiao Jingxian, the Prefect Marshal, as the vanguard, with Zong Que as his deputy. When Yang Mai heard that there would be a battle, he quickly sent a messenger with a letter, expressing his willingness to return the captured Rinan people and offering many treasures as a plea for forgiveness from the Emperor. The Emperor instructed Tan Hezhi: "If Yang Mai is truly sincere about surrendering, then agree to his terms."
The following February, the army arrived at Zhuwu Pass. Tan Hezhi sent Prefect Cao and Acting Governor of Rinan Jiang Zhongji, former bandit Prefect Jiao Hongmin, along with the Emperor's decree along with Bi Yuan, Gao Jingnu, and others to proclaim the court's grace. However, Yang Mai ended up capturing Jiang Zhongji, Gao Jingnu, and twenty-eight others, only letting Jiao Hongmin return to report the situation. He claimed he wanted to surrender, but in reality, he became even more cautious. Seeing this, Xiao Jingxian and his troops pressed on with the attack on Qusucheng. Yang Mai sent General Fan Fulong to hold the defense of Qusucheng and also sent reinforcements by land and water. Xiao Jingxian defeated the reinforcements and then focused his forces on the city assault. In May, they finally captured Qusucheng, beheaded Fan Fulong, and seized an unimaginable amount of gold and silver treasures.
The army pursued the retreating enemy and quickly captured Linyi. Yang Mai and his son were terrified and fled in a hurry. The treasures captured this time included many rare and exotic treasures. The emperor was very pleased and praised the soldiers for their achievements. He issued a decree saying, "Linyi relied on its dangerous terrain and has not been dealt with by us in a long time. General Long Xiang and Tan He, Governor of Jiaozhou, are loyal and talented. They were ordered to embark on an expedition, fighting across thousands of miles, with strict discipline, excelling in both civil and military matters, clean and selfless, leading the soldiers by example, which enabled them to achieve success overseas and deter foreign tribes. They should be duly rewarded; let them be close attendants in the court, appoint Long Xiang as Chancellor of the Yellow Gate, leading the Yueqi Colonel, and acting as General of Building Martial."
"Sima Xiao Jingxian of Long Xiang assisted the main general, fought bravely, charged into battle, destroyed the enemy's nest, and will certainly deter the barbarians and reassure the populace. Appoint him as Jiedu, Governor of Jiaozhou and Guangzhou, with military authority over Yulin and Ningpu, General of Establishing Might, and Governor of Jiaozhou." "Sima Tong Linzhi of Long Xiang and Prefect Fu Weizu of Jiuzhen died in battle; they are posthumously honored with the title of Attendant."
In the year 453 AD, in the second year of Emperor Xiaojian's reign in the Song Dynasty, Linyi sent Changshi Fan Longba to offer tribute, and the emperor granted him the title of General of Yangwu. In the year 458 AD, during the second year of the Song Dynasty, King Fan Shencheng of Linyi sent Changshi Fan Liu to offer tribute, bringing treasures including gold and silver vessels, as well as fragrant cloth. In the year 465 AD, in the first year of Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty, Linyi sent envoys once more to offer tribute, including various local specialties.
Many years ago, Tan Hezhi was sent to Yuzhang and participated in quelling a rebellion among the locals. Due to his contributions in suppressing the rebellion and helping the court resolve issues in Lin Yi, he was granted the title of Viscount of Yundu County and given four hundred households as his fief. Tan Hezhi, a native of Gaoping Jinxiang, was the son of Tan Ping. In the year 451 AD, during the reign of Emperor Wen of Song, he was promoted from the Left Guard of the Crown Prince's Guard to the Marshal of the Zhenjun Army, the Assistant General of the State, and the Prefect of Pengcheng. After a political upheaval that brought a new emperor to the throne, he became the General of the Western Army and the Inspector of Yongzhou. When Emperor Wen personally led a campaign to suppress a rebellion, he appointed Tan Hezhi as the Assistant General of the State to lead the garrison in Yuzhou, but Tan Hezhi chose to head south instead. After Emperor Wen's reign, he became the Right Guard General. In the year 453 AD, during the reign of Emperor Xiaojian, he was appointed as the Assistant General of the State and the Inspector of Yuzhou, but he did not take up the post and returned to his former role as Right Guard General, along with the title of Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary. Three years later, he was exiled to be the Inspector of Nanyanzhou, but because of his greed and womanizing, he brought women from prison to his official residence, leading to his dismissal and imprisonment. He died the same year and was posthumously appointed as the Left General, with the posthumous title of Xiangzi.
In the mountainous regions around Guangzhou, there were many Liren and Laoren tribes with a large and diverse population that often raided nearby areas, causing immense suffering for the locals. During the reign of Emperor Ming of Song, the renowned general Chen Tan from Hepu pledged loyalty to the court and was named Dragon Cavalry General. Four years later, Chen Tan asked the court to send troops to deal with the tribes that still hadn't submitted. He was appointed as the Prefect of Gaoxing while keeping his military title. The court then sent the former Prefect Zhu Ti, Fei Shen, and the Dragon Cavalry General Wu Qi to lead an army south to conquer the tribes, but they failed to achieve anything, ended up killing Chen Tan, and then rebelled themselves. Fei Shen was eventually imprisoned and died.
The Kingdom of Funan, during the 11th, 12th, and 15th years of Emperor Taizu's Yuanjia era (434, 435, and 438 AD), its king, Li Bamo, sent envoys to pay tribute. The Helotuo Kingdom of the Southwest Yi, in the 7th year of Emperor Taizu's Yuanjia era (430 AD), sent a delegation to submit a memorial. The memorial read: The emperor holds a particular reverence for the Three Jewels of Buddhism, so he actively constructs pagodas and temples across the nation. Behold, the cities are magnificent, grand, clean, and orderly, with roads extending in all directions, wide and flat. The temples and palaces stand in succession, resembling rolling mountains, majestic and mysterious, like a heavenly palace.
When the emperor travels, the procession is awe-inspiring, accompanied by countless guards, creating a truly grand spectacle. The city's inhabitants are dressed in beautiful, vibrant clothing; the marketplaces are bustling with goods and countless treasures. The social order is stable, with no incidents of robbery or theft occurring. Scholars gather to study; everyone is dedicated to their practice, promoting Buddhism and aiding all beings, like nourishing all things with spring rain.
The country is well connected, with envoys from various countries gathering. The Yangtze River flows vast, clear, and deep, nourishing countless creatures; impurities find it hard to persist. Yin and Yang are in harmony, and the weather is favorable; disasters have ceased to occur. "Whoever has such beauty, the capital of Great Song, the holy king is unparalleled, overseeing the prosperity of the country." The emperor possesses great virtues, and under his rule, the country thrives, and the people enjoy peace and prosperity.
The emperor is compassionate, caring for all his subjects as a parent would, treating everyone with equality, free from grudges, being charitable, helping the poor, and never seeking personal gain. His benevolence radiates like sunlight, bringing happiness and fortune to all, like the bright full moon.
The prime ministers and ministers of the court are all virtuous and loyal, wholeheartedly assisting the emperor, without any ulterior motives.
Your Majesty, you are my true master. I am the King of Heluo Kingdom, named Jiankai, now humbly kneeling before you. I hope the great king knows that my loyalty has existed for a long time, not just now. Because of the mountains and seas separating us, the journey is far, and I have never had the opportunity to come to see you in person, so today I have sent envoys to convey my sincere intentions. The two people I sent, one named Pin and the other named Potian, have now arrived before Your Majesty. I, Jiankai, am just a small king; who can truly understand my feelings? That's why I sent these two people to express my humble intentions. As long as my intentions are conveyed, I can rest in peace, even if I die.
I hope the great nation will show mercy to our distant little kingdom; we are also one of your border vassals. The people of your great nation have all benefited from your grace; I hope you can also be gracious to us, treating us as you do your subjects. Our country used to have a large population and strong national strength, without suffering from the bullying of other nations, but now it is weakening, and neighboring countries continue to invade us. I hope Your Majesty can extend your assistance to us, protect us, and allow us to trade, not prohibit it. If you can pity us, I hope you can send ships back to us regularly, so that other countries will not look down on us, and your reputation will spread far and wide, and your benevolent acts in aiding smaller nations will be celebrated. Sending these two people now, they are my trusted confidants, and I ask them to report to you; their words are absolutely reliable. I hope you will order Guangzhou to send ships back regularly, and not let the countries along the way rob our ships. I hope that from now on, you will allow us to send envoys to pay our respects annually. I now present some modest gifts; I hope you will graciously accept.
Heluo Kingdom, located in Shapo Island. In the seventh year of Yuanjia, they once sent envoys to present items such as diamond finger nails, red parrots, ancient beads from the Kingdom of Tianzhu and from the Kingdom of Yebu. Ten years later, the King of Heluo Kingdom, Pishabamo, submitted a memorial:
Emperor, you are the eternal victorious ruler! All Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, forever happy and peaceful, possessing the wisdom of the three attainments and six supernatural powers, guiding the world in the right direction. This is the Tathagata, deserving of offerings and truly enlightened. You have left behind relics, built stupas and Buddha statues, adorning the land like the majestic Mount Sumeru; villages and towns orderly surrounding the capital; city walls and palaces towering magnificently like the Trayastrimsa Heaven, splendid and majestic; well-equipped armies capable of defeating enemies; a rich and peaceful land, free from disasters and troubles. You have inherited the aspirations of the previous kings, ruling the country with righteous laws, ensuring the people live in peace and prosperity, everything going smoothly. Your land lies in the shadow of snowy mountains, where snow water forms rivers that flow into the sea, nourishing all living beings; the eightfold nectar is pure and clear, winding its way until it reaches the sea, benefiting all the people. Among all countries, yours is the most prosperous and flourishing, known as the Shendan, the grand capital of the Great Song! You have inherited the legacy of the eternal victorious king, your virtues touch the heavens and earth, your blessings spread across the four seas, your wisdom and insight are limitless, like a celestial being among mortals, protecting the world, with boundless merits and great compassion, helping all beings, you are our esteemed eternal victorious ruler! Therefore, I bow deeply in utmost sincerity and respect! King Helodana Vishabha bows in homage. Later, he was overthrown by his own son, and thirteen years later, he submitted a memorial saying:
Greetings, Great Auspicious Sovereign! You are free from lust, anger, and delusion, showing compassion and mercy to all beings. Your virtues are said to be perfect, and even the Eightfold Celestial Dragon Legions pay their respects to you. Your radiance shines like the moon reflected on water, like the rising sun, illuminating all directions. Your purity is as white as snow, as clear as moonlight, and as vibrant as blooming flowers. Your presence is respected by all heavenly dragons and gods. Your Dharma teachings and the Sangha's practices have brought prosperity and peace to the people. The city rises majestically like Mount Gandhara, with many brave warriors guarding it. The buildings are magnificent, the streets are wide, and the people wear a variety of garments resembling celestial robes, making it the most auspicious and prosperous city among all nations.
O Lord of Yangzhou City, your compassion brings joy and purity to the people. Your Dharma teachings have spread far and wide, and your reputation is known to all. When people see you, they are filled with joy, like seeing the newborn moon or the lord of the world. All beings, human and celestial, bow in deep respect to you. I bow to you as if witnessing the great Arhat Mahamati bowing down to your feet, prostrating before you as if you were here, bowing deeply in greeting.
I inherited my ancestral legacy and enjoyed an era of peace and prosperity, but lost my country due to the contention of wicked usurpers. Now I fully pledge my loyalty to the emperor, seeking only to preserve my life. I have sent Pi Ren to greet you, intending to come personally to tell you of my experiences, but I fear the treacherous seas. I owe my survival to Pi Ren's loyalty and efforts, a debt I can hardly repay. Your country is so powerful, yet it has been taken by wicked usurpers; I have been expelled and exiled, filled with deep resentment and a thirst for revenge. I earnestly request that you permit Pi Ren to procure armor, clothing, and horses, and kindly arrange for his swift return. Previously, I sent Shexie Xianpolo to meet you, but everything that was graciously given to me was seized by the wicked usurpers; I bring this to your attention. I now present a modest gift, hoping you will graciously accept it.
Later, another envoy was sent. Twenty-six years later, Emperor Taizu issued a decree: "The countries of Helodan, Brahmin, and Brahda, who have journeyed from afar across the sea to pay tribute, we must recognize this sincerity and bestow upon them titles and honors!" So envoys were sent to issue decrees to them, stating, "You have journeyed from afar to pay tribute out of your admiration for our benevolence; we have felt this sincerity, therefore, in accordance with our laws, we bestow upon you official titles. You are to obey these commands and diligently fulfill your duties for all time, do you understand?" In the twenty-ninth year, the Grand Historian Brahmin and a novice monk brought tribute.
In the 26th year of the Yuanjia era, the King of the Brahman Kingdom, Shelipolobamo, sent envoys with forty-one tribute items. The Emperor Taizu appointed him as the King of the Brahman Kingdom and issued a decree saying, "You, who are able to govern the border well and bring tribute to the court, the imperial favor is boundless and extends everywhere. Therefore, according to the rules and regulations, I entrust you with this important responsibility. You must uphold the ritual system throughout your tenure, do you understand?" In the 28th year, they presented tribute again. In the third year of the Xiaojian era of the Shizu, they sent the Chancellor Zhunapolozhi to present tribute. Taizu also appointed Zhunapolozhi as the General of Zhenwei. In the third year of Daming, they presented red and white macaws as tribute. In the eighth year of Daming and the second year of Taizong Taishi, they sent envoys to present tribute again. Emperor Taizong appointed their Chancellor Zhuxuluda and the previous General of Zhenwei Zhunapolozhi as the Dragon Cavalry Generals.
In the 26th year of the Yuanjia era, the King of the Poloda Kingdom, Shelibulingqabamo, sent envoys to present tribute. The Emperor Taizu appointed him as the King of the Poloda Kingdom and issued a decree saying, "You, who revere our teachings and come in good faith, our imperial influence has spread far and wide, and even remote areas come to pay tribute. Therefore, I will promote you and commend your loyalty. You must diligently adhere to the laws and regulations and will find happiness throughout your service, do you understand?" In the 26th and 28th years, they sent envoys to present tribute again.
In the 12th year of the Yuanjia era, the King of the Shapopoda Kingdom, Shilipoda, sent envoys to present a memorial.
Great Sovereign of the Song Dynasty, Auspicious Heavenly Emperor: Hello! Wishing you all the best and good health! I have heard that you have subdued the four demons and attained Buddhahood, widely spread the Dharma, guided sentient beings and perfected the teachings, entered Nirvana and disseminated your relics far and wide, built countless stupas, magnificent and unparalleled, grand as Mount Sumeru; the Buddhist scriptures and teachings are widely disseminated, shining like the sun upon the earth; countless pure monks are as numerous as the stars in the sky. Your country boasts vast territories and a multitude of people, with palaces and cities radiant and magnificent, akin to the Trayastrimsa Heaven. You are the illustrious Heavenly Sovereign of the Great Song Dynasty in Yangzhou, reigning in this prosperous era, inheriting the great achievements of the sages, ruling over the four seas, the entire realm of Jambudvipa, where no nation fails to submit to you. We offer this water to benefit all sentient beings; thus, even across the sea, we remain your loyal subjects. We hope you will show compassion for our sincerity and graciously accept our tribute. If you permit, we will send envoys annually, and if you have any needs, we will do everything in our power to meet your needs. We sincerely hope you will trust and accept our intentions without any reservations. We are now dispatching envoys, with Bodhisattva as the chief envoy and Geddi as the deputy, with sincere hearts, to extend our highest respects to you. Bodhisattva will convey all matters to you, hoping you will trust and accept our requests and grant your approval. We now present a few modest gifts to express our sincere respect.
From the Lion Kingdom, in the fifth year of Yuanjia, King Shali Mahan respectfully submits the following memorial:
Respected Great Song Ming Sovereign: Although mountains and seas separate us, we can still keep in touch. We admire your noble morals; your kindness is as boundless as the universe, and your wisdom shines as brightly as the sun and moon. Throughout the world, there is no place that does not bow to you. Kings from various lands have sent envoys to pay tribute, to express their sincere allegiance to you. Some nations even take three years to cross the seas or trek for a thousand days over land to pay tribute. They respect your majesty and admire your grace; no matter how far away, they all come to pay their respects. Since the time of our ancestors, we have grounded our rule in virtue, governing with kindness rather than severity, sincerely offering tribute to the Three Treasures, using our principles to benefit the world, finding joy in helping others and seeing their good deeds as our own. We hope to collaborate with you to promote righteousness and guide those who are hard to teach. Thus, we have entrusted four Taoist priests and sent two white-clad messengers to deliver a tooth relic as a sign of our sincerity. We hope that after the messengers return, you will reply to us. In the twelfth year of the Zhiyuan era, the Kingdom of Shizi sent envoys once more to pay tribute. In the fifth year of Zhiyuan, the Kingdom of Kapiḷa in India, King Yue'ai sent an envoy with the following message: I have heard that your country lies by the river and sea, with rugged mountains and plentiful resources; the land is dignified and pristine, resembling an ideal city. The palaces are magnificent, the streets are broad and well-paved, and the people live in harmony and joy. The king is both wise and valiant; when he travels, subjects from across the globe follow him. He is kind-hearted and compassionate, causing no harm to any living being. All nations come to pay their respects, and the nation is as prosperous as the ocean.
The people of the country all follow the righteous path, the king is benevolent and enlightened, teaching the people through moral guidance, demonstrating compassion and magnanimity. The king diligently upholds the precepts; his virtues have a far-reaching influence, like an exalted vessel of Dharma, rescuing all who are adrift. All civil and military officials live in harmony and satisfaction, safeguarded by celestial beings and attended by myriad deities; even the celestial demons have been subdued and now pay him homage. The king exudes majesty and solemnity, akin to the rising sun; his benevolence and grace envelop the land, like vast clouds. His lineage is filled with sages, like the sun, moon, and stars; this is indeed a remarkably blessed kingdom.
The land I inhabit is known as the Kingdom of Javahar, facing the sea to the east, encircled by walls of purple-hued stone, under the divine protection of celestial deities, so the country has always been stable. The royal lineage has been uninterrupted through the ages; the citizens consistently engage in virtuous acts, and numerous nations come here to seek the righteous path. The Buddha statues within the temples are crafted from precious gems, and the offerings are equally exquisite, all adhering to the edicts of the former kings. I myself have always observed the precepts, not violating any laws; my name is Yue Ai, born into the royal family.
I wholeheartedly wish Your Majesty good health and prosperity in all endeavors, and for the well-being of all ministers and officials. I now present to you my nation's people, mountains, rivers, and treasures, prostrating myself in the deepest respect. Due to the barriers of mountains and seas, I am unable to pay my respects in person; thus, I can only convey my profound reverence through an envoy. The envoy is led by Tianmo Xida, accompanied by Nituda, a loyal and trustworthy individual, which is why he has been chosen to express our sincerity.
If Your Majesty has any needs or rare treasures, we will gladly provide them. Our land is your kingdom, and your decrees are our guiding principles; we will follow your way of governing. We hope that the envoys of both countries will continue to visit each other. After sending your envoy back this time, we also hope that you can send an envoy to our country to convey your decree and inform us of what we should do. We sincerely express our intentions and hope you will not let us down. What I have stated is true, and I earnestly seek Your Majesty's approval.
In the past, small southern countries frequently offered treasures like the Diamond Finger Ring and the Moerjin Ring, and even sent one red parrot and one white parrot. In the second year of the reign of Emperor Taizong Taishi, they sent envoys to pay tribute again and appointed the envoys Zhu Fuda and Zhu Ami as generals, demonstrating the significance placed on these tribute-paying nations.
In the eighteenth year of Yuanjia, the king of Sumali, Nalinara Bammo, sent a substantial tribute. In the second year of Emperor Xiaojian of the Sui Dynasty, the king of Jintuoli, Shibo Luo Nalin Camel, sent his chief historian, Zhuliutuo, to lead a delegation that brought a wealth of gold, silver, and jewels. Later, in the first year of Emperor Hui of the Southern Qi, the country of Poli also dispatched envoys to pay tribute. These countries all believe in Buddhism.
Buddhism began to spread to China during the reign of Emperor Ming of Han. Today, an increasing number of people, from emperors to commoners, embrace Buddhism. Buddhist scriptures and teachings are abundant, their principles profound, and they have developed into a specialized field of study.
In the twelfth year of the Yuanjia reign, Xiao Mozi, the Intendant of Danyang, submitted a memorial to the emperor, saying: "Buddhism has been present in China for four generations. Temples and Buddha statues are everywhere, too numerous to count. Buddhism was originally meant to promote goodness, but recently the situation has changed. Everyone is competing to build new ones to show off, neglecting sincerity. Old temples are left in disrepair without repair. Lavish houses are built one after another, using endless wood, bamboo, copper, and paint, which have no connection to the deities, and instead hinder the livelihood of the people. This violates the court's regulations and needs proper management; otherwise, this corrupt trend will be unstoppable! Therefore, in the future, anyone wishing to cast bronze statues must first report to the court; those who want to build temples or monasteries must first apply to the local officials and wait for approval before starting construction. If built privately, they will be punished for disobeying the decree, and any luxurious temples and gardens will be confiscated!" The emperor agreed with Xiao Mozi's reasoning, so he approved his memorial and dismissed a group of monks and Taoists, several hundred of them. In 458 AD, during the reign of Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty, a monk named Tan Biao conspired with a Qiang tribe leader named Gao Sha to plan a rebellion. In response, the emperor issued an edict, stating that Buddhism had become a mix of good and bad; the monks were neglecting their duties. Not only were they failing to help, but they had also become a refuge for vice and corruption, frequently leading to various nefarious incidents, damaging social morals and stirring up public grievances; even the deities could no longer tolerate it! Therefore, Buddhism must be reformed throughout the land, and those monks who violate the regulations must be severely punished! A series of prohibitions were then issued, stating that unless they were genuinely devout and diligently practicing monks, they must return to secular life. However, these prohibitions proved difficult to enforce because the monks and nuns from these temples maintained close ties with the imperial palace and its concubines.
Earlier, Yu Bing from the Eastern Jin Dynasty suggested that monks ought to show respect to the Emperor, and later Huan Xuan also made similar remarks, but they were not implemented. In the year 462 AD, Emperor Taiwu instructed relevant departments to report: Look, those grand palaces and temples, no matter how grandly they are built, are only for displaying dignity; those kneeling and bowing actions are only for showing respect. The purpose is to maintain the order of the country and consolidate the rule of the state. Therefore, regardless of Confucianism, Mohism, or various schools of thought, there exists a tradition of honoring elders and respecting the king. Only Buddhism, which came from the Western Regions, speaks of distant matters in its scriptures and teachings, teaching people to cultivate extraordinary wisdom. However, these teachings can be difficult for ordinary people to grasp, and their purpose and essence have become blurred, even using words to conceal the true meaning. As a result, Buddhists may look down on others and treat the nobility with indifference, losing the essence of Buddhist humility and deviating from the fundamental meaning of education. Buddhism emphasizes humility, frugality, and loyalty. Monks should be respected, bow to Taoists, and honor elders; how can they bow to the emperor while showing disrespect to their parents? Therefore, the proposals of Yu Bing and Huan Xuan in the past failed for various reasons. Now, our country is thriving, and officials are fulfilling their duties, but there are still disrespectful individuals near the imperial palace who dare to behave insolently before the emperor. How can a positive atmosphere be fostered this way? We believe that when monks have an audience with the Emperor, they should demonstrate proper respect and adhere to their traditional etiquette so that the court's dignity can be maintained.
The Emperor's most beloved Concubine Yin died. In her memory, the Emperor built a temple for her named Xin'an Temple, as Concubine Yin's son Ziluan was titled the Prince of Xin'an. Later, the previous Emperor killed Ziluan, ordered the demolition of Xin'an Temple, expelled the monks, and also demolished Zhongxing Temple and Tianbao Temple.
After Emperor Taizong pacified the rebellion, he ordered, "The temples such as Zhongxing Temple and Xin'an Temple built by the late Emperor were meant to be emulated by future generations to promote the culture of the prosperous era. In recent years, the temples suffered destruction, with Buddha statues vandalized and monks scattered due to incompetent and tyrannical rule. This deeply saddens me. The late Emperor's teachings and wisdom are sufficient to uphold the orthodox teachings. Now, the original monks should be called back to their respective temples, and craftsmen should be dispatched to renovate the temples according to the actual situation."
During the Song Dynasty, there was a famous monk named Daosheng from Pengcheng, whose father was the Magistrate of Guangqi County. Daosheng became a monk at a young age and was a disciple of a renowned master. He was exceptionally intelligent, able to expound scriptures and teachings at the age of fifteen. As he grew older, he developed unique insights and established a theory of enlightenment, earning admiration from people of his time. In the eleventh year of the Yuanjia era, he died on Mount Lu, and Monk Huilin wrote a eulogy for him.
Huilin, originally from Qin County, Qin Prefecture, surnamed Liu, became a monk at a young age and resided in Yecheng Temple. He was talented, well-educated, and admired by Prince Yizhen of Luling for his comprehensive knowledge. He also authored a treatise titled "On Equal Goodness," in which he elaborated on his thoughts:
Mr. Bai Xue believes that Chinese sages have benefited future generations with their achievements, being morally upright, wise, and insightful, mastering the laws of the operation of heaven and earth. Their teachings are not obscure or omitted, and how could there be any differing views about their intelligence and wisdom? The critic, Mr. Hei, argues that they do not understand the path of the underworld and cannot guide people into the afterlife. Although they humbly study, they cannot be humble in everything, not as profound as the practitioners from the Western Regions. Then Mr. Bai asked him, where exactly do they fall short?
Mr. Bai asked Mr. Hei: "Is the 'emptiness' described by Buddhism the same as the 'emptiness' described by Taoism?"
Mr. Hei said: "Not the same. Buddhism teaches that 'all things are empty, and emptiness is one with all things', meaning that all things in the world are empty, and emptiness itself is the unity of all things. Taoism talks about two paths of 'existence' and 'non-existence', believing that 'emptiness' and 'existence' are different; how could they possibly be the same?"
Mr. Bai asked again: "Buddhism says that all things are empty; are all things really empty?"
Mr. Hei replied: "Yes. Emptiness itself is also empty, to the utmost degree."
Mr. Bai continued: "There are sun, moon, and stars in the universe, and all things growing in the world; which one is empty?"
Mr. Hei explained: "Emptiness refers to the inherent nature of things being empty, but this does not prevent the existence of things. Just like when building a house, where various materials come together to create tall structures, wood itself is not a house; grains of sand accumulate to form a beach. Everything is temporary; Mount Tai is not eternal and unchanging; the rise and fall, success and failure, are all dictated by fate. Therefore, 'emptiness' refers to the nature of things, not their practical functions; I think Buddhism's understanding of 'emptiness' is wrong."
Mr. Bai asked: "Is the 'true appearance' you mentioned the same as 'emptiness'?"
Mr. Hei replied: "Yes."
Mr. Bai continued: "The changes of all things in the world are in front of us; everyone can see and hear, right? Using this principle to cultivate, and then using this principle to explain various different teachings, I believe this has yet to reach a truly profound level."
Lao Hei said, "Although this principle may seem straightforward, it is actually very difficult to understand. People usually think that important things are all illusory, while the truly important things are real. So, we must abandon false things, get rid of extravagance and hypocrisy, and let go of greed and desires. If you can let go of greed but still cannot cultivate Dao, then I don't know how to explain it."
Lao Bai then gave an example, saying, "We cut down trees, but it doesn't diminish the lushness of the shade; we demolish houses, but it does not affect the beauty of the homes. Recognizing the impermanence of things allows us to appreciate life's brevity; understanding the impermanence of competition can help us let go of the pursuit of fame and fortune. Vibrant silk showcases a rich array of colors, and delicious dishes require various seasonings to bring out good taste. Duke Huan pursued the pleasure of hunting wild birds, while King Yan did not pursue ways to achieve longevity. Perhaps these desires for enjoyment will only make people more entrenched in competition and greed."
Lao Hei said, "These principles are indeed profound and complex; ordinary theories cannot even come close."
Lao Bai continued, "In ancient China, there were many poems about mountains, rivers, grass, trees, and stones, as well as debates on hardness and softness, black and white. These are all full of Chinese culture, but they do not touch the core mystery of Dao, so they cannot be used as the fundamental teaching materials for cultivation. Since you can release your emotions and attachments and approach Dao with an open mind, and analyze problems in practical terms, your understanding is already very thorough."
Lao Hei said: "Both Confucius and Zhou Gong taught teachings in the present life, without addressing the afterlife or karmic retribution. They believed that good deeds benefit only future generations, and committing evil deeds will only result in punishment. The rewards and punishments are limited to this lifetime, and they have no knowledge of the afterlife, which is quite unfortunate. However, Shakyamuni Buddha emphasizes endless spiritual practice to help sentient beings escape from suffering and alleviate mental suffering. His wisdom pervades the universe, and his compassion benefits all beings. He speaks of hell to instill fear of committing crimes, speaks of heaven to make people aspire to happiness, and guides people towards nirvana, enabling them to transcend. His supernatural powers are vast, and his blessings extend to all beings. Past awakened saints soar in the higher realms, and future awakened beings will also ascend, but how can those with narrow vision understand the true essence of the great Dao?"
Lao Bai said: "What you said is indeed lofty, but now we cannot see miracles or verify supernatural powers. Devout practitioners fail to witness the salvation offered by Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and diligent learners cannot experience the realm of transcendence. It is said that the Buddha has immeasurable life, but we do not see people with longevity; it is said that the vajra is indestructible, but we also do not see immortal objects. If the teachings do not align with reality, we should trace the original intention of the statements and the thoughts they embody. Rather than pursuing heaven to perform good deeds, it is better to follow righteousness to cultivate the Dao; instead of fearing hell to restrain oneself, it is better to follow reason to cultivate a righteous heart. Worship is to seek forgiveness, not to go through rituals; giving is to accumulate virtue and do good, not for the sake of rewards. Seeking the happiness of nirvana may result in an indulgence in comfort; admiring the wonders of the Dharma body can arouse curiosity. If immediate desires are not eliminated, distant benefits will arise, even if Bodhisattvas are said to have no desires, sentient beings do have desires. If only helping the poor without changing the customs of people pursuing fame and profit, how, then, can one achieve inner peace and return to the great Dao?"
Lao Hei said: "No. If people are not motivated by the benefits of the afterlife, how can they conquer their worldly desires? It is impossible to change people's thoughts all at once, so we must guide them gradually. By giving up short-term benefits in exchange for endless future rewards, just like if you don't put in the effort during spring planting, you won't see a harvest in autumn. If you only sit at the bottom of the well and think little of yourself, you will sink into darkness forever."
Lao Bai said: "Strange! How can our goals be so different? The Taoist philosophy preaches no desires, yet it uses desires to guide, which is like searching for Yingdu by going east and searching for Yueguo by going west, only to be forever lost in dark valleys. How can we see the land of Min and Chu? The term 'gradual progress' should actually refer to a gradual reduction in desires. We should first let go of minor desires, then important desires, allowing our desires to diminish gradually, so that our true nature can naturally emerge. How can we trade a little benefit for a greater one, or exchange shallow methods for profound methods? If we are always driven by benefits, will desires ever end? People only pursue magnificent colors, grand buildings, waste money, squander resources, do useless things, harm the interests of the public, only to satisfy personal desires, pursue power, form factions, use asceticism to gain fame, and use protection to satisfy their vanity; this is truly tragic! How can the Tao find a way to exist and thrive? Therefore, Duke Zhou and Confucius educate the people, only focusing on this life; Laozi and Zhuangzi educate the world, only focusing on human nature."
Lao Hei said: "Confucianism's three teachings and nine schools, the five virtues of robbers, and the teachings of sages all have their limitations. The Taoist spells, witchcraft, etc., are even more deceitful and countless. You praise Confucianism here, criticize Taoism there; it's like splashing around in muddy water while completely missing the clear stream."
Lao Bai said, "Where there are indications, there are inevitably flaws; where there are methods, there is inevitably hypocrisy. This is the dilemma faced by sages. What is worrying now is that people establish rules out of greed, but ultimately form customs. People not only fail to correct these flaws but also take pride in them as virtues. As for those unrestrained individuals, they have always been looked down upon by society, and their origins are not worth discussing."
Lao Hei said, "Are the teachings of Buddhism mainly aimed at the ignorant masses, with no effect on cultured individuals?"
Lao Bai said, "Not necessarily so. If Buddhism is to develop, it should inherit and promote the love for all beings, stop killing, learn from the benevolent governance of the Zhou Dynasty, release the desire for wealth and status, and adopt a mindset of helping others. How should the principles of benevolence, righteousness, and the mysterious be promoted and developed?"
Regarding his writings, an old monk felt that he was disparaging Buddhism and wanted to push him away. However, Emperor Taizu found his writings impressive and rewarded him. During the Yuanjia era, he participated in court politics, and major state affairs were discussed with him. People visiting his home were endless, with dozens of carriages often parked outside, and many gifts from various places. At that time, his influence was immense. He provided annotations for the "Classic of Filial Piety" and "Zhuangzi: Free and Easy Wandering," and also wrote some commentaries that have been passed down.
There are two monks, Huiyan and Huiyi, both practicing at Dong'an Temple. Their knowledge and character are excellent, and they are respected by everyone. At that time, there were many Zen monks at Douchang Temple, and in the capital city, there was a saying: "Douchang is the nest of Zen masters, Dong'an Temple is the place to discuss Buddhist principles." In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Ming Dynasty, during a feast at Zhongxing Temple, a strange monk appeared whom no one recognized. When asked for his name, he said his name was Minghui and that he came from Tian'an Temple, then suddenly disappeared. However, there was no temple known as Tian'an Temple, so they simply renamed Zhongxing Temple as Tian'an Temple. During the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Ming Dynasty, there was a foreign monk named Mahayana Buddhism, who practiced asceticism and had great knowledge. He spread many new scriptures in the capital, especially the "Sutra of Queen Srimala," which was particularly esteemed by scholars.
Goguryeo, which is now within the Liaodong Commandery of the Han Dynasty. Goguryeo King Gao Liyan, in the ninth year of Emperor Yixi of the Jin Dynasty, sent the Chief Minister Gao Yi to present a bay horse. Emperor Jin appointed Gao Liyan as Commissioner-in-Chief, Commander of the Garrison of Yingzhou, General of the Eastern Expedition, King of Goguryeo, and Duke of Lelang. After Emperor Gaozu ascended the throne, he issued a decree saying: "Commissioner-in-Chief, Commander of the Garrison of Yingzhou, General of the Eastern Expedition, King of Goguryeo, Duke of Lelang Gao Liyan, and Commissioner-in-Chief, Commander of the Garrison of Baekje, General Who Pacifies the East, King of Baekje Ying, you have all demonstrated your loyalty and dedication from afar, coming from afar to pay tribute. At the time of the establishment of the new dynasty, you should be rewarded. Gao Liyan is promoted to Grand General Who Conquers the East, and Ying is promoted to Grand General Who Pacifies the East. Other positions remain unchanged." Three years later, Gao Liyan was appointed as an Imperial Attendant and was also assigned to oversee military affairs in Pingzhou.
In the second year of the Jingping era (AD), King Lian of Goguryeo sent Chancellor Malou and his companions to present gifts in the capital, and also dispatched envoys to extend greetings. The emperor's letter of condolences read: "The emperor greets the envoy with the imperial seal, cavalier attendant, commander of military affairs in Pingzhou and Yingzhou, Grand General of the Eastern Expedition, King of Goguryeo, and Duke of Lelang. You have been fighting in the east, with your ongoing achievements. Your merits have become well-known, and your sincerity is evident. You have traveled far, crossing the Liao River and the Great Sea, to present tribute to the court. I feel unworthy of such virtues and am ashamed to follow in the footsteps of my predecessors, constantly recalling their legacy, hoping to continue their blessings. I have dispatched Envoy Zhu Shaobo, Deputy Envoy Wang Shaizi, and others to extend my greetings to you. I hope you will continue to uphold benevolent governance, strengthen your achievements, and honor the legacy of your predecessors, which reflects my own intentions as well."
Earlier on, the Xianbei people Murong Bao occupied Zhongshan, but was defeated by the Suolu and fled to Huanglong. In the early years of the Yixi era, Murong Bao's brother Murong Xi was killed by his subordinate Feng Ba, who then proclaimed himself as the King of Yan because he ruled over Huanglong City, which is why it was known as the Huanglong Kingdom. After Feng Ba's death, his son Murong Hong succeeded to the throne, but was repeatedly attacked by Suolu and could not fend off the assaults. During the reign of Emperor Taizu, Murong Hong sent envoys to pay tribute every year. In the twelfth year of the Yuanjia era, the court even granted him an official position. In the fifteenth year of the Yuanjia era, Murong Hong was once again attacked by Suolu, defeated, and fled to Beifeng City in Goguryeo, asking Goguryeo to take him in. Taizu sent envoys Wang Baiju and Zhao Cixing to meet him, and ordered Goguryeo to take care of his food and lodging. However, King Lian of Goguryeo didn’t want Murong Hong coming south, so he sent generals Sun Shu, Gao Qiu, and others to take him out. Wang Baiju and his men led over seven thousand troops to confront Sun Shu and his group, captured Sun Shu alive, and killed Gao Qiu and others. Since Wang Baiju and his men acted without orders, Lian sent people to escort them to the capital. The emperor, knowing they were from a far-off land, didn’t want to go against their wishes, so after locking up Wang Baiju and his men, he ended up pardoning them.
Every year envoys are sent to pay tribute; it's an old tradition. In the sixteenth year of his reign, the Emperor Taizu wanted to go to war in the north, so he asked the King of Lian to send horses, and he sent a whopping eight hundred all at once! Impressive, right? In the second year of the Xiaojian era, the King of Lian sent the Chief Historian Dong Teng to the court to extend his regards and also brought some gifts to show his appreciation. In the third year of Daming, he sent arrows and stone projectiles crafted by the Sushen people (what are these exactly? Anyway, they're all valuable items). In the seventh year, the emperor praised him in an edict: "Commander in Chief, Imperial Secretariat, Commander of the troops in Pingying, General of the East, King of Goguryeo, Duke of Lelang, Lian, you have shown unwavering loyalty, guarding our overseas borders, demonstrating unwavering loyalty to the court, committed to resolving border issues, maintaining relations with overseas territories, your achievements align with the principles of good governance; you deserve to be rewarded! You are hereby promoted to General of Chariots and Cavalry and appointed as Household Counselor with equal ceremonial rank; your other titles will remain the same." During the reigns of Emperor Taizong and the subsequent Emperor Feidi, he kept up the tribute without fail.
Baekje, originally located in the same area as Goguryeo, more than a thousand li to the east of Liaodong. Later, Goguryeo occupied Liaodong, and Baekje occupied Liaoxi. The capital of Baekje was called Jinping County. In the twelfth year of Yixi, the court appointed King Yu Ying of Baekje as the commander-in-chief overseeing all military affairs of Baekje, the general of the Eastern Expedition, and the King of Baekje. After Emperor Gaozu ascended the throne, he promoted him to the Grand General of the Eastern Expedition. In the second year of Jingping, Yu Ying sent his chief of staff, Zhang Wei, to the court to present tribute. In the second year of the Yuanjia Era, Emperor Taizu issued an edict to him, which said: "The emperor greets the commander-in-chief overseeing all military affairs of Baekje, the general of the Eastern Expedition, and the King of Baekje. Your generations of loyalty in crossing the sea to express your allegiance, inheriting the achievements of your ancestors, and continuing to be loyal to the court, your loyalty and righteousness are well-known, and we have also recognized your sincerity. You have journeyed from afar, crossing the sea to present tribute, so I let you continue to serve as the prince of the eastern border, hoping you will continue to strive and honor the legacy of your ancestors. Now I have sent the attendants Luqiu Enzi and the deputy attendants Ding Jingzi to comfort you and express my intentions." Since then, Baekje sent envoys to present tribute every year. In the seventh year of his reign, King Yu Pi continued to present tribute and inherited Yu Ying's title. In the twenty-seventh year, Yu Pi presented tribute again and privately entrusted the envoy Feng Yefu, the Prefect of Xihe, to request the court to grant him the Book of Changes, the Book of Rites, and a handheld crossbow, which Emperor Taizu granted. After Pi's death, his son Qing inherited the throne. In the first year of Shizu Daming, Qing sent someone to the court to request an official position, which the emperor granted.
Two years later, Qing sent someone to submit a memorial, stating: "Our country has been receiving special grace from the court for generations, and both civil and military officials have been granted titles by the court for generations. The eleven loyal and dedicated ministers, including Champion General Yu Ji, should be promoted and utilized. I respectfully request the emperor's approval to appoint them to official positions together." The memorial then listed the promotions: promoting Yu Ji to a higher rank; promoting Yu Kun and Yu Yun from Expeditionary Generals to higher ranks; promoting Yu Du and Yu Yi from Assistant State Generals to higher ranks; promoting Mu Jin and Yu Jue from Dragon Cavalry Generals to higher ranks; promoting Yu Liu and Mi Gui from Pacification Generals to higher ranks; promoting Yu Xi and Yu Lou from Establishing Martial Generals to higher ranks.
In the seventh year of Emperor Taizong's reign, he sent someone to offer tribute to the court. Japan, located southeast of Goryeo, has always been offering tribute to our country. In the second year of Emperor Gaozu's Yongchu era, he issued an edict saying, "The king of Japan has come from afar to offer tribute; this sincerity is truly rare, and he should be granted an official title."
Then, in the second year of Emperor Taizu's Yuanjia era, the king of Japan sent an official named Cao Da to offer tribute. After this king of Japan passed away, his brother succeeded him and also sent people to offer tribute. He granted himself a grand title, calling himself "Imperial Commissioner, Commander-in-Chief of the Military Forces of Japan, Baekje, Silla, Goguryeo, Gaya, and the six countries, Grand General of the East, King of Japan." He then submitted a formal request to the court to officially grant him a title, and the court conferred upon him the title of Grand General of the East and King of Japan. He also sought to appoint himself and twelve others to the titles of Grand General of the West, Expeditionary General, Champion General, and Assistant State General, to which the court consented.
After twenty years, King Ji of Japan sent envoys again to present tribute, and the court once again appointed him as General of the East (Andong Jiangjun) and King of Wa. Eight years later, the court further promoted him to "Imperial Envoy and Commander of the Military of Wa, Silla, Mimana, Karak, and six other countries," while still retaining his position as General of the East. He also recommended twenty-three people, who were also granted official titles by the court. After King Ji passed away, his son Xing succeeded him and also sent envoys to present tribute.
In the sixth year of the reign of Emperor Shizu of the Ming Dynasty, the court issued an edict saying, "Prince Xing, King of Japan, your family has been loyal for generations, serving as vassals overseas, abiding by the rules, and consistently paying tribute. Now that he has ascended to the throne, he should be granted an official title, so let him be appointed as General of the East (Andong Jiangjun) and King of Wa!" After King Xing passed away, his brother Wu succeeded him and self-proclaimed as "Imperial Envoy and Commander of the Military of Wa, Baekje, Silla, Mimana, Karak, Mohe, and seven other countries, Grand General of the East, King of Wa."
In the year 458 AD, our emperor dispatched a messenger to the court to report: "Our country, situated in a remote region, has long been a vassal state. For generations, our ancestors have been donning armor and helmets, traversing mountains and valleys, and have not had a peaceful day. We have defeated fifty-five countries to the east, conquered sixty-six countries to the west, and crossed the sea to subdue ninety-five countries to the north. The royal way can flourish, and our territory has expanded so far. Throughout the generations, we have paid tribute to the court every year without fail. Although I am foolish, I have inherited the foundation of my ancestors and led my soldiers with the intention of being loyal to the court. However, on the way to Baekje, as we were preparing our ships, the country of Silla acted unreasonably, wanting to swallow us, and constantly raided our borders, causing continuous disturbances and damaging our good name. Although we aim to move forward, it is uncertain whether we will arrive smoothly. My father, Ji, particularly hated these bandits, blocking our path to the court. He had a million strong army under him, and everyone was moved by his righteous actions, preparing for a major attack. However, he and his brothers suddenly passed away, just when success seemed near, leading to failure. At that time, overwhelmed by grief, I dared not act rashly, so I remained idle, unable to seek vengeance. Even now, I still want to organize the army to fulfill my father and brothers' wishes. Those ambitious soldiers, civil and military officials are willing to help, even if it means risking their lives. If we could receive your grace, Emperor, to help us defeat this formidable enemy, stabilize this chaos, and not squander the achievements of our ancestors, it would be ideal. I humbly request your appointment as General of the Guards and ask for other officials to be appointed accordingly, to encourage their loyalty and sense of duty." The Emperor responded with a decree, appointing him as the Military Envoy, Commander-in-Chief of the armies of Wo, Silla, Mimana, Kara, Qin, Han, and Muhan, Grand General of the East, and King of Wo.
The tribes of Jingzhou and Yongzhou are said to be descendants of the Panhu. They are scattered across different counties. Jingzhou established the position of Nanman Colonel, while Yongzhou established the position of Ningman Colonel to govern them. In the early days of Emperor Wu's reign, the position of Nanman Colonel was abolished and came directly under the imperial court's authority, but the position of Ningman Colonel was retained. Obedient barbarian families were only required to pay a few dou of grain, with no other taxes or corvée, while Han people faced heavy taxes and corvée. The poor cannot cope with it, leading many to escape to the barbarian areas to avoid it. The barbarians are exempt from corvée, and able-bodied men don’t have to pay taxes. They often band together in groups, sometimes numbering in the hundreds or thousands. The military forces in the states and counties are weak, so they frequently rebel and turn to banditry, with their numbers being uncountable.
The areas where the barbarians reside are mostly treacherous. For instance, in Wuling County, in the five valleys of Xiongxi, Xiaoxi, Chenxi, Youxi, and Wuxi, live the so-called "Five Creek Tribes." The barbarians in Yidu, Tianmen, Badong, Jianping, and Jiangbei counties dwell in deep mountains and ancient forests, with isolated access and few signs of human presence. They have been a scourge to the people since ancient times.
In the second year of the Jingping era, the barbarian leader from Yidu, Shi Ning, along with 112 others, totaling 113 people, came to the capital to offer tribute. In the sixth year of Yuanjia, the barbarians from Jianping, led by Zhang Yong, numbering 50, came to the capital to pay respects to the emperor; in the seventh year, the Yidu barbarians, led by Tian Sheng, also numbering 113, came to the capital to pay respects to the emperor. Later, the barbarians in the Mian River basin launched a large-scale rebellion, nearly obstructing all travel. The village head of Xiangzhong Township in Tianmen County, Zong Qiaozhi, couldn't endure the heavy tax burdens imposed on them by the barbarians. In the eighteenth year of Yuanjia, the barbarians, led by Tian Xiangqiu, revolted, stormed Xiangzhong Township, and plundered its residents. The Governor of Jingzhou, Prince Yiji of Hengyang, dispatched troops led by Sun Nian to confront them, defeated them, captured over 500 prisoners, and dismissed Zong Qiaozhi from his post. In the twenty-fourth year of Yuanjia, the barbarians in Linju County and Dangyang County in Nanchuan revolted and kidnapped Fu Sengji, the magistrate of Linju County. The Governor of Jingzhou, Prince Yixuan of Nanqiao, sent Wang Chen, a mid-ranking military officer, to launch an attack, and they were similarly defeated.
First of all, the Governor of Yongzhou, Liu Daochan, was quite skilled at managing the barbarians. Those barbarians who used to be unruly eventually became obedient and relocated to the plains near the Han River under his rule. However, the barbarians revolted once more following Liu Daochan's death. Later, Emperor Wu (referring to Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan) became the Governor of Yongzhou, and the barbarians obstructed the roads, but were soundly defeated by Emperor Wu in a major battle. The court subsequently dispatched General Shen Qingzhi to campaign against the barbarians for several years, and everywhere he went, he pacified the area, as noted in "The Biography of Shen Qingzhi." In the twenty-eighth year of the Taikang era of Emperor Wu, the barbarians from the Longshan and Zhishui regions launched an attack on Nieyang County. The Prefect of Nanyang, Zhu Tanshao, sent troops to fight, but lost with over three hundred casualties. Zhu Tanshao subsequently dispatched two thousand troops to pursue them, forcing the barbarians to scatter and flee. That year, the barbarians in the Zhishui area exploited the difficult terrain to create chaos. The Governor of Yongzhou sent envoys to urge them to surrender, emphasizing that the court's benevolence reached even the border regions. Those who complied with the court would be rewarded, while those who defied it would face consequences. The barbarian leader, Lü Nuzi, had long been a source of trouble along the border. When Lü Gui was in Changshe, Lü Nuzi pledged allegiance to him, and Lü Gui recommended him to the Xiongnu chief, who appointed him as the King of the Four Mountains. When Lü Shuang returned to his country, Lü Nuzi also requested to submit to the court. Following this, the Governor sent troops to subdue the barbarians in the northern region of the Mian River, capturing three strongholds and besieging two others. The barbarians fought desperately, but were overwhelmed by the well-equipped cavalry of the imperial forces, resulting in the beheading of two hundred and the capture of over a thousand barbarians, along with eighty cattle and horses.
During the reign of Emperor Jinwu of the Great Ming Dynasty, Xiang Guanghou, the leader of the Jianping tribe, caused unrest in the Xiachuan region. Wang Ji, the Prefect of Ba Dong, and Zhu Xiuzhi, the Inspector of Jingzhou, sent troops to suppress him. Xiang Guanghou fled to Qingjiang, over a thousand miles from Ba Dong. At that time, the barbarians from Ba Dong, Jianping, Yidu, and Tianmen were all rebelling, resulting in the people of each county fleeing and suffering great losses. During the reigns of Emperor Tai Zong and Emperor Shun of Jinwu, the situation became particularly dire. Despite multiple military campaigns launched by the court to quell the rebellions, they were ultimately unable to stop them, which ultimately led to Jingzhou becoming desolate and in decline.
During the Great Ming period, the Guiyang barbarians revolted, killing Yan Zhenzhi, the magistrate of Lixian; the barbarians of Linhe rebelled and killed the magistrate of Guanjian County, Xing Boer. General Xiao Chongzhi of Zhenwu was dispatched to suppress them, but faced heavy losses and was ultimately held accountable.
It is said that the Yuzhou barbarians are descendants of the Linjun clan. The tales of Pan Hu and Linjun are documented in historical texts. In the Xiyang area, five rivers flow through the region: Ba River, Qi River, Xi River, Chiting River, and Xigui River, which is why the locals refer to them as the "Five Rivers Barbarians." They inhabit high mountains and dangerous terrain, with numerous tribes that have a long history of banditry. Their territory stretches north to the Huai River and Ru River, and southward to the Yangtze River and Han River, covering thousands of miles.
In the year 451 AD (the 28th year of the Song Yuanjia era), County Magistrate Liu Tai of Nanchuan was murdered by the Xiyang tribes, along with his entire family. By the year 452 AD (the 29th year of the Yuanjia era), over two thousand barbarians from Xinchai breached the defenses of Dalaishu, stole the boats belonging to officials and civilians, and rowed them into the lake. At that time, there was a fugitive named Sima Heishi, who blended in with the barbarians and joined them as a bandit. Song Emperor Xiaowu then sent Prince and Infantry Colonel Shen Qingzhi to lead the armies of Jiangzhou, Jingzhou, Yongzhou, and Yuzhou to suppress them. Later, in the fourth year of the Song Ming Emperor (460 AD), Shen Qingzhi was sent to suppress the Xiyang tribes and secured a decisive victory. Sima Heishi was accompanied by three accomplices: one named Zhi, whom Heishi called "Taigong," with Zhi as his strategist; one named Anyang, who called himself the King of Qiao; and another named Xuzhi, who called himself the King of Liang. Subsequently, the barbarian leader Xiao Luo and others captured Xuzhi, but the glory was claimed by the barbarian leader Shicai, which infuriated Xiao Luo and his followers, leading them to kill Shicai and his family of six. The Governor of Yuzhou, Wang Xuanmo, sent General Guo Yuanfeng to negotiate with the various tribes and have them bring in the fugitives. The barbarians delivered Zhi (Sima Heishi) and Anyang to Wang Xuanmo. The Song Ming Emperor ordered their execution in Shouyang.
When Emperor Taizong of Song had just ascended the throne, rebellions erupted across the country. After the southern bandits were defeated at Quewei, the Xiyang tribes Tian Yizhi, Tian Yizhi, Cheng Xiecai, Tian Guangxing, and others launched another assault on Yingzhou and successfully captured it. Emperor Taizong appointed Tian Yizhi as the Assistant General, responsible for military operations in the Four Mountains region; he also established Song'an County and Guangcheng County in the barbarian territory, appointing Tian Yizhi as the Prefect of Song'an, and Tian Guangxing as the Dragon Cavalry General and Prefect of Guangcheng. Tian Yizhi was also titled the King of Biancheng County, with a fief comprising 411 households; Cheng Xiecai was titled the King of Yangcheng County, with a fief of three thousand households. Tian Yizhi was subsequently promoted to the rank of Hu Ben Zhonglang General, while retaining his position as a general.
During the early reign of Emperor Shun, he was first promoted to the position of Chief Archer and later appointed as the Champion General. After his father Cheng Xiecai passed away, his son Po Si inherited the title and became the Assistant General and Cavalry Commander. At the same time, Mei Shi, the leader of the Jinxi tribes, rebelled and killed the Jinxi Prefect Yan Zhanzhi and the signatory Shen Guangzu of Prince Zixun of Jin'an. He was granted the title of Marquis of Gaoshan and received thirty households in the villages of Niugang and Xiachai as his fiefdom.
Speaking of it, during the Han Dynasty, transportation in the Western Regions was quite developed. The roads had to pass through numerous checkpoints, cross towering mountains, and traverse treacherous mountain paths, which made travel extremely dangerous. By the time of the Jin Dynasty, after the migration to the south, the area around the Yellow River and Longshan was cut off, and the roads were blocked by the Rong and Di tribes, almost severing the connection with the Western Regions. Countries like Daqin and Tianzhu, located far beyond the Western Sea, found it very difficult to interact during the Han Dynasty, and trade was even more difficult. Sometimes, goods had to pass through Jiaozhi, cross the sea, and rely on wind power to reach their destination. The terrain of the Western Regions was rugged and complex, with numerous ethnic groups, diverse names, and a wide variety of goods. Countless rare and exotic treasures were continuously transported from there, all of which were treasures that the emperors of the time coveted. Therefore, there was a constant flow of ships and frequent merchant exchanges. As the southern tribute could not be delivered, Emperor Taizu sent troops on an expedition and won a significant victory at Quanpu, which struck fear across the seas. Many treasures filled the national treasury.
Since ancient times, the Four Barbarians have been very powerful, causing significant harm. There are many ethnic groups, including the Man and Bai tribes, each with their own diversity. They live by the mountains and rivers, gathering in border areas very close to the Central Plains, which makes it easy for them to rebel, plunder resources, and seize land. Over time, the situation worsened. Beginning in the Yuanjia era, rebellions increased, even controlling several provinces and destabilizing the nation. Therefore, the court dispatched troops to suppress them, scouring the mountains far and wide and capturing millions of prisoners, including children and the elderly. To vent their anger, the soldiers executed many captives, and the war was brutal and devastating. While the grievances were longstanding, the retaliation was excessively brutal. As Zhang Huan once remarked, "Bloodshed in the wild leads to disaster." These are indeed the words of a wise man!
